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စာကြောင်း ၁ -
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=='''လူ႔အခြင့္အေရးလူ့အခွင့်အရေး'''==
 
'''လူ့အခွင့်အရေး''' ဆိုသည်မှာ "လူသားများ၏ မွေးရာပါ အခြေခံ အခွင့်အရေးများနှင့် လွတ်လပ်ခွင့်များ" ကို ဆိုလိုခြင်းဖြစ်သည်။ ဥပမာအားဖြင့် နိုင်ငံသားနှင့် နိုင်ငံရေး အခွင့်အရေးဆိုင်ရာ လူ့အခွင့်အရေးအချက်များ ဖြစ်သော အသက်ရှင်နေထိုင်ခွင့်၊ လွတ်လပ်ခွင့်နှင့် လွတ်လပ်စွာ ထုတ်ဖော်ပြောဆိုခွင့်နှင့် ဥပဒေရှေ့မှောက်တွင် တန်းတူညီမျှ ဖြစ်ခွင့်၊ စီးပွားရေး လူမှုရေးနှင့် ယာဉျကျေးမှုဆိုင်ရာ အခွင့်အရေးများ ဖြစ်သော မိမိကိုယ်ပိုင် ယာဉျကျေးမှုတွင် လွတ်လပ်စွာ ပါ၀င်ခွင့်၊ အစားအစာ ရရှိခွင့်၊ အလုပ် လုပ်ကိုင်ခွင့်၊ နှင့် ပညာသင်ကြားခွင့် စသည်တို့ ဖြစ်သည်။
'''လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး''' ဆိုသည္မွာ "လူသားမ်ား၏ ေမြးရာပါ အေျခခံ အခြင့္အေရးမ်ားႏွင့္ လြတ္လပ္ခြင့္မ်ား" ကို ဆိုလိုျခင္းျဖစ္သည္။ ဥပမာအားျဖင့္ ႏိုင္ငံသားႏွင့္ ႏိုင္ငံေရး အခြင့္အေရးဆိုင္ရာ လူ႔အခြင့္အေရးအခ်က္မ်ား ျဖစ္ေသာ အသက္ရွင္ေနထိုင္ခြင့္၊ လြတ္လပ္ခြင့္ႏွင့္ လြတ္လပ္စြာ ထုတ္ေဖာ္ေျပာဆိုခြင့္ႏွင့္ ဥပေဒေရွ႕ေမွာက္တြင္ တန္းတူညီမွ် ျဖစ္ခြင့္၊ စီးပြားေရး လူမႈေရးႏွင့္ ယာဥ္ေက်းမႈဆိုင္ရာ အခြင့္အေရးမ်ား ျဖစ္ေသာ မိမိကိုယ္ပိုင္ ယာဥ္ေက်းမႈတြင္ လြတ္လပ္စြာ ပါ၀င္ခြင့္၊ အစားအစာ ရရွိခြင့္၊ အလုပ္ လုပ္ကိုင္ခြင့္၊ ႏွင့္ ပညာသင္ၾကားခြင့္ စသည္တို႔ ျဖစ္သည္။
 
{{cquote|လူသားအားလုံးသည် လွတ်လပ်၍ တန်းတူညီမျှသော ဂုဏ်သိက်ခာနှင့် အခွင့်အရေးများဖြင့် မွေးဖွားလာသူများ ဖြစ်သည်။ ထိုလူသားတို့သည် ဆင်ခြင်တုံတရားနှင့် ကျင့်၀တ်ကို တာ၀န်သိသော စိတ်တို့ရှိကြ၍ တစ်ဦးနှင့် တစ်ဦး မောင်နှမစိတ်ဖြင့် ဆက်ဆံသည့်သည်။ |||အပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ လူ့အခွင့်အရေး ကြေငြာစာတမ်း အပိုဒ် (၁) }}
{{cquote|လူသားအားလံုးသည္ လြတ္လပ္၍ တန္းတူညီမွ်ေသာ ဂုဏ္သိကၡာႏွင့္ အခြင့္အေရးမ်ားျဖင့္ ေမြးဖြားလာသူမ်ား ျဖစ္သည္။ ထိုလူသားတို႔သည္ ဆင္ျခင္တံုတရားႏွင့္ က်င့္၀တ္ကို တာ၀န္သိေသာ စိတ္တို႔ရွိၾက၍ တစ္ဦးႏွင့္ တစ္ဦး ေမာင္ႏွမစိတ္ျဖင့္ ဆက္ဆံသည့္သည္။ |||အျပည္ျပည္ဆိုင္ရာ လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး ေၾကျငာစာတမ္း အပိုဒ္ (၁) }}
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==လူ့အခွင့်အရေး သမိုင်းကြောင်း==
==လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး သမိုင္းေၾကာင္း==
{{main|History of human rights}}
 
စာကြောင်း ၃၂ -
At the 1945 [[Yalta Conference]], the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to supplant the League's role. This body was to be the [[United Nations]]. The United Nations has played an important role in international human rights law since its creation. Following the World Wars the United Nations and its members developed much of the discourse and the bodies of law which now make up [[international humanitarian law]] and [[international human rights law]].
 
==နိုင်ငံတကာ လူ့အခွင့်အရေး စံများ==
==ႏိုင္ငံတကာ လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး စံမ်ား==
===လူသားချင်းစာနာမှု ဥပဒေ===
===Humanitarian Law လူသားခ်င္းစာနာမႈ ဥပေဒ===
[[Image:Original Geneva Conventions.jpg|thumb|Original Geneva Convention in 1864.]]
{{main|Geneva Conventions}}
{{main|Humanitarian law}}
Line ၄၃ ⟶ ၄၂:
 
 
===အပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ လူ့အခွင့်အရေး ကြေငြာစာတမ်း===
===အျပည္ျပည္ဆိုင္ရာ လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး ေၾကညာစာတမ္း===
{{main|Universal Declaration of Human Rights}}
Line ၆၂ ⟶ ၆၁:
Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called ''Unity Resolution'', the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing states to adopt some rights and derogate others.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Though this allowed the covenants to be created, one commentator has written that it denied the proposed principle that all rights are linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR.<ref>Ball, Gready (2007) p.35</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Human Rights and Human Wrongs|author=Littman, David G.|date=[[19 January]] [[2003]]|quote=The principal aim of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was to create a framework for a universal code based on mutual consent. The early years of the United Nations were overshadowed by the division between the Western and Communist conceptions of human rights, although neither side called into question the concept of universality. The debate centered on which "rights" — political, economic, and social — were to be included among the Universal Instruments|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-littman011903.asp}}</ref>
 
====လူ့အခွင့်အရေး သဘောတူစာချုပ်များ====
{{Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights}}
 
 
=== လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး ဥပေဒ ===
{{main|International human rights law}}
{{main|International human rights instruments}}
'''Human rights law is a system of laws, both domestic and international, designed to promote human rights.'''
 
====လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး သေဘာတူ စာခ်ဳပ္မ်ား====
{{main|Human rights law}}
In 1966, the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] ('''ICCPR''') and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] ('''ICESCR''') were adopted by the [[United Nations]], between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states that have signed this treaty, creating human rights law.
Line ၈၁ ⟶ ၇၂:
*[[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] ('''CRC''') (adopted 1989, entry into force: 1989) [http://www.unicef.org/crc]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families|International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families]] ('''ICRMW''') (adopted 1990)
 
====လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး ဥပေဒမ်ားအား အသက္သြင္းျခင္း====
{{main|Human rights law}}
The enforcement of international human rights law is the responsibility of the [[Nation State]], and its the primary responsibility of the State to make human rights a reality. There is currnetly no international court that upholds human rights law (the International Criminal Court deals with [[crimes against humanity]], [[war crimes]] and [[genocide]]), although the [[European Union]] has established the [[European Court of Human Rights]] which enforces European human rights law on a regional basis.
 
In practice, many human rights are very difficult to legally enforce due to the absence of consensus on the application of certain rights, the lack of relevant national legislation or of bodies empowered to take legal action to enforce them.
 
 
==== Universal Jurisdiction ====
{{main|Human rights law}}
[[Universal jurisdiction]] is a controversial principle in international law whereby states claim criminal jurisdiction over persons whose alleged crimes were committed outside the boundaries of the prosecuting state, regardless of nationality, country of residence, or any other relation with the prosecuting country. The state backs its claim on the grounds that the crime committed is considered a crime against all, which any state is authorized to punish. The concept of universal jurisdiction is therefore closely linked to the idea that certain international norms are [[erga omnes]], or owed to the entire world community, as well as the concept of jus cogens.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Pitfall of Universal Jurisdiction|journal=Foreign Affairs|author=Kissinger, Henry|date=July/August 2001|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010701faessay4996/henry-a-kissinger/the-pitfalls-of-universal-jurisdiction.html}}</ref>
 
 
==နိုင်ငံတကာ အဖွဲ့အစည်းများ==
==ႏိုင္ငံတကာ အဖြဲ႔အစည္းမ်ား==
===ကုလသမဂၢကုလသမဂ===
 
{{main|United Nations}}
Line ၁၀၃ ⟶ ၈၃:
{{cquote|...achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.|||Article 1-3 of the [[United Nations Charter]]}}
 
====လူ့အခွင့်အရေး ကောင်စီ====
====လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး ေကာင္စီ====
{{main|United Nations Human Rights Council}}
 
Line ၁၁၂ ⟶ ၉၂:
The Human Rights Council may request that the Security Council take action when human rights violations occur. This action may be direct actions, may involve [[sanctions]], and the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] may also refer cases to the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) even if the issue being referred is outside the normal jurisdiction of the ICC.<ref>The Security Council referred the human rights situation in [[Darfur]] in [[Sudan]] to the ICC despite the fact that Sudan has a functioning legal system</ref>
 
====လုံခြုံရေး ကောင်စီ====
====လံုၿခံဳေရး ေကာင္စီ====
{{main|United Nations Security Council}}
 
Line ၁၂၆ ⟶ ၁၀၆:
The [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] recognizes the Security Council the power to refer cases to the Court, where the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction.
 
====အခြားကုလသမဂ်ဂစာချုပ်များ====
====အျခား ကုလသမဂၢ စာခ်ဳပ္မ်ား====
 
A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them varies, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a number of ''treaty-based'' bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (UNHCHR). The bodies are committees of independent experts that monitor implementation of the core international human rights treaties. They are created by the treaty that they monitor.
Line ၁၄၆ ⟶ ၁၂၆:
Each treaty body receives secretariat support from the Treaties and Commission Branch of Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva except CEDAW, which is supported by the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW). CEDAW meets at United Nations headquarters in New York; the other treaty bodies generally meet at the United Nations Office in Geneva. The Human Rights Committee usually holds its March session in New York City.
 
==Legal issues in human rights==
===လူ့အခွင့်အရေး နှင့် အမျိုးသားလုံခြုံရေး===
{{see also|National security|Anti-terrorism legislation}}
 
With the exception of non-derogable human rights (international conventions class the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws as non-derogable<ref name=resourceII>{{cite web|title=The Resource Part II: Human Rights in Times of Emergencies|url=http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/comp210.htm#10.2|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref>), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency - although
==ေဒသဆိုင္ရာ လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး==
The three principal regional human rights instruments are the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]], the [[American Convention on Human Rights]] (the Americas) and the [[European Convention on Human Rights]].
{{see also|List of human rights articles by country|National human rights institutions}}
 
{{cquote|the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a temporary measure|||United Nations. ''The Resource''<ref name=resourceII/>}}
===အာဖရိက===
{{main|Human rights in Africa}}
 
Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as [[Peremptory norm|peremptory norms or ''jus cogens'']]. Such [[United Nations Charter]] obligations are binding on all states and cannot be modified by treaty.
The [[African Union]] (AU) is a supranational union consisting of fifty-three African states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/memberstates/map.htm|title=AU Member States|publisher=African Union|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref> Established in 2001, the AU's purpose is to help secure Africa's democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy, especially by bringing an end to intra-African conflict and creating an effective common market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/AboutAu/au_in_a_nutshell_en.htm|title=AU in a Nutshell|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
Examples of national security being used to justify human rights violations include the [[Japanese American internment]] during [[World War II]],<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/childofcamp/history/timeline.html Children of the Camps | INTERNMENT TIMELINE<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Stalin's [[Great Purge]],<ref>[http://www.cusd.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/projects/russia/stalin/great_purge.htm The Great Purge<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and the actual and alleged modern-day abuses of terror suspects rights by some western countries, often in the name of the so-called [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Fox News Report|publisher=Fox News|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,316382,00.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2004/12/16/uk9890.htm|title=UK Law Lords Rule Indefinite Detention Breaches Human Rights|publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>
The [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] is the regions principal human rights instrument and emerged under the aegis of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU) (since replaced by the [[African Union]]). The intention to draw up the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] was announced in 1979 and the Charter was unanimously approved at the OAU's 1981 Assembly. Pursuant to its Article 63 (whereby it was to "come into force three months after the reception by the Secretary General of the instruments of ratification or adherence of a simple majority" of the OAU's member states), the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights came into effect on 21 October 1986 – in honour of which 21 October was declared "African Human Rights Day".<ref>[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]]</ref>
 
The [[African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights]] (ACHPR) is a quasi-judicial organ of the [[African Union]] tasked with promoting and protecting human rights and collective (peoples') rights throughout the African continent as well as interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and considering individual complaints of violations of the Charter. The Commission has three broad areas of responsibility:<ref name=mandate>{{cite web|url=http://www.achpr.org/english/_info/mandate_en.html|title=Mandate of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
===လူ့အခွင့်အရေး ချိုးဖောက်မှု===
* Promoting human and peoples' rights
* Protecting human and peoples' rights
* Interpreting the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]]
 
In pursuit of these goals, the Commission is mandated to "collect documents, undertake studies and researches on African problems in the field of human and peoples, rights, organise seminars, symposia and conferences, disseminate information, encourage national and local institutions concerned with human and peoples' rights and, should the case arise, give its views or make recommendations to governments" (Charter, Art. 45).<ref name=mandate/>
 
With the creation of the [[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]] (under a protocol to the Charter which was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in January 2004), the Commission will have the additional task of preparing cases for submission to the Court's jurisdiction.<ref name=court>{{cite web|url=http://www.achpr.org/english/_info/court_en.html|title=PROTOCOL TO THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES` RIGHTS ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN AFRICAN COURT ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES` RIGHTS|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref> In a July 2004 decision, the AU Assembly resolved that the future Court on Human and Peoples' Rights would be integrated with the African Court of Justice.
 
The [[African Court of Justice|Court of Justice of the African Union]] is intended to be the “principal judicial organ of the Union” (Protocol of the Court of Justice of the African Union, Article 2.2).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-union.org/official_documents/Treaties_%20Conventions_%20Protocols/Protocol%20to%20the%20African%20Court%20of%20Justice%20-%20Maputo.pdf|title=PROTOCOL OF THE COURT OF JUSTICE OF THE AFRICAN UNION|publisher=African Union}}</ref> Although it has not yet been established, it is intended to take over the duties of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, as well as act as the supreme court of the African Union, interpreting all necessary laws and treaties. The Protocol establishing the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights entered into force in January 2004<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/alfresco_asset/dc501e2c-a5f9-11dc-bc7d-3fb9ac69fcbb/ior630082004en.pdf|title=Open Letter to the Chairman of the African Union (AU) seeking clarifications and assurances that the Establishment of an effective African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights will not be delayed or undermined|publisher=Amnesty International|date=[[5 August]] [[2004]]}}</ref> but its merging with the Court of Justice has delayed its establishment. The Protocol establishing the Court of Justice will come into force when ratified by 15 countries.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=African International Courts and Tribunals|url=http://www.aict-ctia.org/courts_conti/acj/acj_home.html|title=African Court of Justice|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
There are many countries in Africa accused of human rights violations by the international community and NGOs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/doc/?t=africa|title=Human Rights Watch Africa|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
{{Africa topic|Human rights in}}
 
===အေမရိကေဒသ===
[[Image:LogooasENG.png|thumb|Emblem of the [[Organization of American States]]]]
The [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) is an international organization, headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]]. Its members are the thirty-five independent states of the Americas. Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the [[Cold War]], the return to democracy in [[Latin America]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}}, and the thrust toward [[globalization]], the OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oas.org/key_issues/eng/default.asp|title=OAS Key Issues|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
* Strengthening democracy
* Working for peace
* Protecting human rights
* Combating corruption
* The rights of Indigenous Peoples
* Promoting sustainable development
 
The [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] (the IACHR) is an autonomous organ of the [[Organization of American States]], also based in Washington, D.C. Along with the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]], based in [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]], [[Costa Rica]], it is one of the bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oas.org/documents/eng/biographies.asp?group=hhrr|publisher=Organization of American States|title=Directory of OAS Authorities|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref> The IACHR is a permanent body which meets in regular and special sessions several times a year to examine allegations of human rights violations in the hemisphere. Its human rights duties stem from three documents:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cidh.oas.org/what.htm|title=What is the IACHR?|publisher=Inter-Americal Commission on Human Rights|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
* the [[Charter of the Organization of American States|OAS Charter]]
* the [[American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man]]
* the [[American Convention on Human Rights]]
 
The Inter-Americal Court of Human Rights was established in 1979 with the purpose of enforcing and interpreting the provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights. Its two main functions are thus adjudicatory and advisory. Under the former, it hears and rules on the specific cases of human rights violations referred to it. Under the latter, it issues opinions on matters of legal interpretation brought to its attention by other OAS bodies or member states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corteidh.or.cr/index.cfm?CFID=25331&CFTOKEN=36922058|title=Inter-American Court on Human Rights homepage|publisher=Inter-American Court on Human Rights|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
Many countries in the Americas, such as the United States, Colombia, Cuba, and Venezuela, have been accused of human rights violations.
 
{{North America topic|Human rights in}}
{{South America topic|Human rights in}}
 
===အာရွေဒသ===
{{main|Human rights in Asia|Human rights in East Asia|Human rights in Central Asia|Human Rights in the Middle East}}
 
There are no Asia-wide organisations or conventions to promote or protect human rights. Countries vary widely in their approach to human rights and their record of human rights protection.
 
The [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN)<ref name=Overview>{{cite web|url=http://www.aseansec.org/64.htm|title=Overview ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref> is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed in 1967 by [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] and [[Thailand]].<ref> [[s:Bangkok Declaration|Bangkok Declaration]]. Wikisource. Retrieved [[March 14]], [[2007]]</ref> The organisation now also includes [[Brunei]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Cambodia]].<ref name=Overview/> Its aims include the acceleration of economic growth, social progress, cultural development among its members, and the promotion of regional peace<ref name=Overview/>
 
The [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia, representing almost 1.5 billion people. It was established in 1985 by [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]], [[Maldives]] and [[Bhutan]]. In April 2007, at the Association's 14th summit, [[Afghanistan]] became its eighth member.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saarc-sec.org/main.php|title=South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation homepage|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
The [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf]] (CCASG) is a trade bloc involving the sseven Arab states of the [[Persian Gulf]], with many economic and social objectives. Created in 1981, the Council comprises the Persian Gulf states of [[Yemen]] [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gcc-sg.org/Foundations.html|title=The Concept and Foundations and Objectives of the CCASG|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
The [[Asia Cooperation Dialogue]] (ACD) is a body created in 2002 to promote Asian cooperation at a continental level, helping to integrate the previously separate regional organizations of political or economical cooperation. The main objectives of the ACD are as follows:<ref name=aboutACD>{{cite web|url=http://www.acddialogue.com/about/index.php|title=About the Asia Cooperation Dialogue|publisher=Asia Cooperation Dialogue|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
* To promote interdependence among Asian countries in all areas of cooperation by identifying Asia's common strengths and opportunities which will help reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for Asian people whilst developing a knowledge-based society within Asia and enhancing community and people empowerment;
* To expand the trade and financial market within Asia and increase the bargaining power of Asian countries in lieu of competition and, in turn, enhance Asia's economic competitiveness in the global market;
* To serve as the missing link in Asian cooperation by building upon Asia's potentials and strengths through supplementing and complementing existing cooperative frameworks so as to become a viable partner for other regions;
* To ultimately transform the Asian continent into an Asian Community, capable of interacting with the rest of the world on a more equal footing and contributing more positively towards mutual peace and prosperity.
 
None of the above organisations have a specific mandate to promote or protect human rights, but each has some human rights related economic, social and cultural objectives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gcc-sg.org/CHARTER.html|title=Charter of CCASG|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref><ref name=aboutACD/>
 
A number of Asian countries are accused of serious human rights abuses by the international community and human rights organisations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/asia/|title=Human Rights Watch Asia|accessdate=2008-01-03}}</ref>
 
{{Asia in topic|Human rights in }}
 
===ဥေရာပေဒသ===
{{main|Human rights in Europe}}
{{see also|Human rights in the Soviet Union|Category:European Court of Human Rights cases }}
 
The [[Council of Europe]], founded in 1949, is the oldest organisation working for European integration. It is an international organisation with legal personality recognised under public international law and has observer status with the United Nations. The seat of the Council of Europe is in [[Strasbourg]] in [[France]]. The Council of Europe is responsible for both the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] and the [[European Court of Human Rights]].<ref name=Council>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/T/E/Human_rights/|title=Council of Europe Human Rights|publisher=Council of Europe|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> These institutions bind the Council's members to a code of human rights which, though strict, are more lenient than those of the United Nations charter on human rights.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The Council also promotes the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] and the [[European Social Charter]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/T/E/Human_Rights/Esc/|title=Social Charter|publisher=Council of Europe|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> Membership is open to all European states which seek [[European integration]], accept the principle of the [[rule of law]] and are able and willing to guarantee [[democracy]], fundamental human rights and [[freedom (political)|freedoms]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/T/e/Com/about_coe/|title=The Council of Europe in Brief|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref>
 
The [[Council of Europe]] is separate from the [[European Union]], but the latter is expected to accede to the European Convention and potentially the Council itself.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} The EU also has a separate human rights document; the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gouvernement.lu/salle_presse/actualite/2006/04/11conseil_europe/english_mod.pdf|title=Council of Europe - European Union: "A sole ambition for the European Continent"|author=Juncker, Jean-Claude|date=[[11 April]] [[2006]]|publisher=Council of Europe|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref>
 
The [[European Convention on Human Rights]] defines and guarantees since 1950 human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe.<ref name=EUCourt>{{cite web|url=http://www.echr.coe.int/ECHR/EN/Header/The+Court/The+Court/History+of+the+Court/|title=Historical Background to the European Court of Human Rights|publisher=European Court of Human Rights|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref> All 47 member states of the Council of Europe have signed this Convention and are therefore under the jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.<ref name=EUCourt/> In order to prevent torture and inhuman or degrading treatment (Article 3 of the Convention), the [[Committee for the Prevention of Torture]] was established.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpt.coe.int/en/about.htm|title=About the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture|publisher=European Committee for the Prevention of Torture|accessdate=2008-01-04}}</ref>
 
The [[European Court of Human Rights]] is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (rather than states).<ref name=EUCourt/>
 
{{Europe topic|Human rights in}}
 
===သမုဒၵရာ ေဒသဆိုင္ရာ===
 
{{see also|Human rights in Australia}}
 
There are no regional approaches or agreements on human rights for Oceania, but most countries have a well-regarded human rights record.
 
Australia is the only western democracy with no constitutional or legislative bill of rights, but a number of laws have been enacted to protect human rights and the Constitution of Australia has been found to contain certain implied rights by the High Court. However, Australia has been criticised at various times for its immigration policies, treatment of asylum seekers, treatment of its indigenous population, and foreign policy.
 
{{Oceania in topic|Human rights in}}
 
==လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး အေတြးအေခၚမ်ား==
{{rights}}
 
Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights become part of social expectations.
 
One of the oldest Western philosophies on human rights is that they are a product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds.
 
Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with [[David Hume|Hume]]). Human rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of [[Max Weber|Weber]]). These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in [[John Rawls|Rawls]]) - a social contract.
 
===သဘာ၀အခြင့္အေရး===
{{main|Natural law|Natural right}}
 
Natural law theories base human rights on a “natural” moral, religious or even biological order that is independent of transitory human laws or traditions.
 
[[Socrates]] and his philosophic heirs, [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], posited the existence of [[natural justice]] or natural right (''dikaion physikon'', ''δικαιον φυσικον'', [[Latin]] ''ius naturale''). Of these, Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law,<ref>Shellens (1959)</ref> although evidence for this is due largely to the interpretations of his work by [[Thomas Aquinas]].<ref>Jaffa (1979)</ref>
 
The development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the [[Stoicism|Stoics]].<ref>Sills (1968, 1972) ''Natural Law''</ref>
 
Some of the early [[Church Fathers]] sought to incorporate the until then [[paganism|pagan]] concept of natural law into [[Christianity]]. Natural law theories have featured greatly in the [[philosophy|philosophies]] of [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Francisco Suárez]], [[Richard Hooker]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[Hugo Grotius]], [[Samuel von Pufendorf]], and [[John Locke]].
 
In the Seventeenth century [[Thomas Hobbes]] founded a [[social contract|contractualist theory]] of [[legal positivism]] on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another). The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act. It was discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law. In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign. In this lay the foundations of the theory of a social contract between the governed and the governor.
 
[[Hugo Grotius]] based his philosophy of international law on natural law. He wrote that "even the will of an [[omnipotence|omnipotent]] being cannot change or abrogate" natural law, which "would maintain its objective validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no [[God]] or that he does not care for human affairs." (''De iure belli ac pacis'', Prolegomeni XI). This is the famous argument ''etiamsi daremus'' (''non esse Deum''), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology.
 
[[John Locke]] incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]''. Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went against natural law and failed to protect "life, liberty, and property," people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one.
 
The Belgian philosopher of law [[Frank Van Dun]] is one among those who are elaborating a secular conception<ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.ugent.be/~frvandun/Texts/Logica/NaturalLaw.htm|author=van Dun, Frank|accessdate=2007-12-28|title=Natural Law}}</ref> of natural law in the liberal tradition. There are also emerging and secular forms of natural law theory that define human rights as derivative of the notion of universal human dignity.<ref>Kohen (2007)</ref>
 
The term "human rights" has replaced the term "natural rights" in popularity, because the rights are less and less frequently seen as requiring natural law for their existence.<ref>{{cite web|author=Weston, Burns H.|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106289?query=human%20rights&ct=eb|title=Human Rights|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Online, p. 2|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref>
 
===လူ႔အခြင့္အေရး ခ်ဳိးေဖာက္မႈမ်ား===
[[Image:Burma 3 150.jpg|[[Aung San Suu Kyi]] is a [[prisoner of conscience]] and pro-[[democracy]] campaigner in [[Burma]]|thumb]]
{{see also|Genocides in history}}
Line ၂၉၉ ⟶ ၁၆၂:
*Peshawar, Pakistan [http://www.mcclatchydc.com/world/story/30964.html]
*Tibet, People's Republic of China [http://www.wtopnews.com/?nid=105&sid=1208395]
 
{{International Criminal Law|state=collapsed}}
 
==Currently debated rights==
 
With the advances of technology, medicine, and human philosophy, the [[status quo]] of human rights thinking is constantly challenged. New, unforeseen possibilities and events occur, which can affect existing rights or potentially require new ones.
 
===သဘာ၀ ပတ္၀င္းက်င္ အခြင့္အေရးမ်ား===
The onset of various [[List of environmental issues|environmental issues]], especially [[climate change]], has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. In the area of environmental rights, the responsibilities of multi-national corporations, so far relatively unaddressed by human rights legislation, is of paramount consideration.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
 
===လိင္တူခ်စ္သူမ်ား အခြင့္အေရး===
Current gay rights issues, such as [[same-sex marriage]], gay adoption rights, and protection from discrimination are considered by some{{who}} to be human rights. Current campaigns, such as the human rights campaign, specifically focus on the rights of the [[LGBT]] community.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights Campaign|url=http://www.hrc.org/index.htm|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref>
 
==See also==
* [[Discrimination]]
* [[Economic freedom]]
* [[Freedom (political)]]
* [[Global governance]]
* [[Human responsibilities]]
* [[Human security]]
* [[International human rights instruments]]
* [[List of human rights organisations]]
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