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'''အာကာသလွန်းပျံ''' သည် ကမ္ဘာပတ်လမ်းအနိမ့်သို့သွားရောက်ရန် အမေရိကန်ပြည်ထောင်စု [[အမျိုးသား အာကာသနှင့် လေကြောင်း ဦးစီးဌာန]] (နာဆာ)က အသုံးပြုသော တစ်စိတ်တပိုင်းပြန်လည်အသုံးပြုနိုင်သည့်ယာဉ်ဖြစ်သည်။ .
{{not Burmese}}
{{Redirect|STS}}
{{Two other uses|the NASA Space Transportation System vehicle|the associated NASA STS program|Space Shuttle program|other shuttles and aerospace vehicles|Spaceplane}}
{{Infobox rocket
|image= STS120LaunchHiRes-edit1.jpg
|caption= ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'' lifts off at the start of [[STS-120]].
|name= Space Shuttle
|function= Manned orbital launch and reentry
|manufacturer= [[United Space Alliance]] <br />[[Thiokol]]/[[Alliant Techsystems]] (SRBs) <br />[[Lockheed Martin]]/[[Martin Marietta]] (ET) <br />[[Boeing]]/[[Rockwell International|Rockwell]] (orbiter)
|country-origin= United States of America
|height= 56.1 m
|alt-height= 184.2 ft
|diameter= 8.7 m
|alt-diameter= 28.5 ft
|mass= 2,030 t
|alt-mass= 4,470,000 lbm
|stages=
|LEO-payload= 24,400 kg
|alt-LEO= 53,600 lb
|payload-location= [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]]
|payload= 3,810 kg
|alt-payload= 8,390 lbm
|payload2-location= [[Polar orbit]]
|payload2= 12,700 kg
|alt-payload2= 28,000 lb
|payload3-location= Landing<ref name=woodcock>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zopTAAAAMAAJ&q=Space+Shuttle+return+payload&dq=Space+Shuttle+return+payload&hl=en&ei=1C1-Tr-IMdC2tgeO_OFk&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCQ |title=Gordon R. Woodcock – '''Space stations and platforms''' (1986, 220 pages) – Snippet: "The present limit on Shuttle landing payload is 14400 kg. (32000 lb). This value applies to payloads intended for landing." |publisher=Google Books |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
|payload3= 14,400 kg
|alt-payload3= 32,000 lb)<ref name=woodcock/> <br /><small>(Return Payload</small>
|status= Retired
|sites= [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|LC-39]], [[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />[[Vandenberg AFB Space Launch Complex 6|SLC-6]], [[Vandenberg Air Force Base|Vandenberg AFB]] (unused)
|launches=135
|success= 134 successful launches<br> 133 successful re-entries
|fail= 2 ([[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|launch failure]], ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'';<br>[[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|re-entry failure]], ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'')
|partial= <!-- Partial Launch successes. -->
|other_outcome=
|payloads= [[Tracking and Data Relay Satellite]]s <br />[[Spacelab]] <br />[[Great Observatories program|Great Observatories]]<small> (including [[Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]])</small><br />[[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo]], [[Magellan probe|Magellan]], [[Ulysses (spacecraft)|Ulysses]] <br />[[Mir Docking Module]] <br />[[ISS assembly sequence|ISS components]]
|first= [[STS-1|April 12, 1981]]
|last= [[STS-135|July 21, 2011]]
|boosters= 2
|boostername= [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Boosters]]
|boosterengines= 1 [[Solid-fuel rocket|solid]]
|boosterthrust= 12.5 [[meganewton|MN]] each, sea level liftoff
|alt-boosterthrust= 2,800,000 [[pound force|lbf]]
|boosterSI= 269 s
|boostertime= 124 s
|boosterfuel= solid
|stage1name= [[Shuttle External Tank|External Tank]]
|stage1engines= 3 [[Space Shuttle Main Engine|SSMEs]] located on Orbiter
|stage1thrust= 5.45220 MN total, sea level liftoff
|alt-stage1thrust= 1,225,704 lbf
|stage1SI= 455 s
|stage1time= 480 s
|stage1fuel= [[Liquid oxygen|LOX]]/[[Liquid hydrogen|LH2]]
|stage2name= [[Space Shuttle Orbiter|Orbiter]]
|stage2engines= 2 [[Orbital Maneuvering System|OME]]
|stage2thrust= 53.4 kN combined total vacuum thrust
|alt-stage2thrust= 12,000 lbf
|stage2SI= 316 s
|stage2time= 1,250 s
|stage2fuel= [[Monomethylhydrazine|MMH]] / [[Dinitrogen tetroxide|N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>]]
|}}
အဓိကတာဝန်များမှာ မရေမတွက်နိုင်သောဂြိုဟ်တုများကမ္ဘာပတ်လမ်းကြောင်းပေါ်သို့ပို့လွှတ်ခြင်း၊ ဂြိုဟ်သွားယာဉ်များလွှတ်ခြင်း၊ [[ဟပ်ဘဲလ်အာကာသမှန်ပြောင်း]]လွှတ်တင်ခြင်း၊ အာကာသသိပ္ပံစမ်းသပ်မှုများပြုလုပ်ခြင်း၊ [[နိုင်ငံတကာအာကာသစခန်း]]ဆောက်လုပ်ခြင်းနှင့်ထောက်ပံ့မှုပြုခြင်းတို့ဖြစ်သည်။ အဓိကအစိတ်အပိုင်းများမှာ ကမ္ဘာပတ်ယာဉ်၊ တွန်းအားပေးဒုံးပျံ၊ ပြင်ပလောင်စာကန်၊ ကုန်များနှင့်အထောက်အကူပြုပစ္စည်းများပါဝင်သည်။ ကမ္ဘာပတ်ယာဉ်ငါးစင်းတည်ဆောက်ခဲ့ပြီး နှစ်စင်းမှာမတော်မဆဖြစ်မှုကြောင့်ပျက်စီးခဲ့သည်။
'''အာကာသလွန်းပျံ''' သည် ကမ္ဘာပတ်လမ်းအနိမ့်သို့သွားရောက်ရန် အမေရိကန်ပြည်ထောင်စု [[အမျိုးသားလေကြောင်းနှင်အာကာသစီမံရေးအဖွဲ့]] (နာဆာ)က အသုံးပြုသော တစ်စိတ်တပိုင်းပြန်လည်အသုံးပြုနိုင်သည့်ယာဉ်ဖြစ်သည်။ . Its official program name was ''Space Transportation System'', taken from a 1969 plan for [[Space Transportation System|a system of reusable spacecraft]] of which it was the only item to be funded for development.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/taskgrp.html Space Task Group Report, 1969<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. It was used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011 all launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], Florida.
==မိတ်ဆက်==
အဓိကတာဝန်များမှာ မရေမတွက်နိုင်သောဂြိုဟ်တုများကမ္ဘာပတ်လမ်းကြောင်းပေါ်သို့ပို့လွှတ်ခြင်း၊ ဂြိုဟ်သွားယာဉ်များလွှတ်ခြင်း၊ [[ဟပ်ဘဲလ်အာကာသမှန်ပြောင်း]]လွှတ်တင်ခြင်း၊ အာကာသသိပ္ပံစမ်းသပ်မှုများပြုလုပ်ခြင်း၊ [[နိုင်ငံတကာအာကာသစခန်း]]ဆောက်လုပ်ခြင်းနှင့်ထောက်ပံ့မှုပြုခြင်းတို့ဖြစ်သည်။ အဓိကအစိတ်အပိုင်းများမှာ ကမ္ဘာပတ်ယာဉ်၊ တွန်းအားပေးဒုံးပျံ၊ ပြင်ပလောင်စာကန်၊ ကုန်များနှင့်အထောက်အကူပြုပစ္စည်းများပါဝင်သည်။ ကမ္ဘာပတ်ယာဉ်ငါးစင်းတည်ဆောက်ခဲ့ပြီး နှစ်စင်းမှာမတော်မဆဖြစ်မှုကြောင့်ပျက်စီးခဲ့သည်။s.
အာကာသလွန်းပျံသည်တစ်ကြိမ်ထက်ပိုပြီးပြန်လည်အသုံးပြုနိုင်သောယာဉ်ဖြစ်သည်။<ref name=ft20110930>{{cite news |last=Bewley|first=Elizabeth |title=SpaceX working on reusable rocket |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20110930/NEWS02/309300020/SpaceX-working-reusable-rocket?odyssey=tab{{!}}topnews|text|Space%20News |accessdate=2011-09-30 |newspaper=Florida Today |date=September 30, 2011 |quote=''[many] rockets typically are used just once, although some partly reusable versions have been developed, such as the Space Shuttle.''}}</ref>
==ကိုးကား==
The Space Shuttle at launch consisted of the Orbiter Vehicle (OV), one external tank (ET), and two Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs). It was [[VTHL|launched vertically]] like a conventional rocket with thrust from the two SRBs and three [[Space Shuttle main engine|main engines]]. During launch, the external tank provided fuel for the orbiter's main engines. The SRBs and ET were jettisoned before the orbiter reached orbit. At the conclusion of the orbiter's space mission, it fired its thrusters to drop out of orbit and [[Atmospheric reentry|re-enter]] the lower atmosphere. The orbiter decelerated in the atmosphere before flying like a [[Glider aircraft|glider]] but with [[reaction control system]] thrusters before landing on a long runway. [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']], [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']], [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']], [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']], and [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|''Endeavour'']] were the space-capable orbiters that were built.
{{reflist}}
==Overview==
အာကာသလွန်းပျံသည်တစ်ကြိမ်ထက်ပိုပြီးပြန်လည်အသုံးပြုနိုင်သောယာဉ်ဖြစ်သည်။<ref name=ft20110930>{{cite news |last=Bewley|first=Elizabeth |title=SpaceX working on reusable rocket |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20110930/NEWS02/309300020/SpaceX-working-reusable-rocket?odyssey=tab{{!}}topnews|text|Space%20News |accessdate=2011-09-30 |newspaper=Florida Today |date=September 30, 2011 |quote=''[many] rockets typically are used just once, although some partly reusable versions have been developed, such as the Space Shuttle.''}}</ref> [[human spaceflight]] vehicle capable of reaching [[low Earth orbit]], commissioned and operated by the U.S. [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) from 1981 to 2011. It resulted from shuttle design studies conducted by NASA and the US Air Force in the 1960s, and was first proposed for development as part of an ambitious second-generation [[Space Transportation System]] (STS) of space vehicles to follow the [[Apollo program]] in a September 1969 report of a Space Task Group headed by Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]] to President [[Richard Nixon]]. However, post-Apollo NASA budgeting realities impelled Nixon to withhold support of all system components except the Shuttle, to which NASA applied the STS name.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
The vehicle consisted of a [[spaceplane]] for orbit and re-entry, fueled by an expendable liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen tank, with reusable strap-on solid booster rockets. The [[STS-1|first]] of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981 leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy Space Center]], Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions;<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.abcactionnews.com/dpp/news/national/nasa-bill-passed-by-congress-would-allow-for-one-additional-shuttle-flight-in-2011|title=NASA bill passed by Congress would allow for one additional Shuttle flight in 2011|author=Jim Abrams|agency=Associated Press |date=September 29, 2010|accessdate=September 30, 2010}}</ref> on July 8, 2011, with Space Shuttle Atlantis performing that 135th launch – the final launch of the three-decade Shuttle program.<ref name="latimes">{{cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-naw-atlantis-shuttle-launch-20110709,0,1541836.story|title=Space Shuttle Atlantis Lifts Off|date=July 9, 2011 | work=Los Angeles Times|first1=Ralph|last1=Vartabedian|first2=W.J.|last2=Hennigan}}</ref> The program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes,<ref name=coolt>{{cite web|title=7 cool things you didn't know about Atlantis|url=http://www.space.com/news/7cool-things-space-shuttle-atlantis-100512.html}}</ref> conducting space science experiments, and servicing and construction of space stations. ''[[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Enterprise]]'' was a prototype [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiter]] used for atmospheric testing during development in the 1970s, and lacked engines and heat shield. Five space-worthy [[Space Shuttle orbiter|orbiters]] were built—two were destroyed in accidents and the others have been retired.
It was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the [[U.S. Department of Defense]], the [[European Space Agency]], Japan, and Germany.<ref name=Interavia85/><ref name=life/> The United States funded Shuttle development and operations, except for the Spacelab modules used on [[STS-61-A|D1]] and [[STS-55|D2]]{{mdash}}sponsored by [[West Germany]] and [[German reunification|reunified Germany]] respectively.<ref name=Interavia85>[http://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=German-funded+Spacelab+mission+made+use+of+the+ESA+Space+Sled&btnG=Search+Books#sclient=psy&hl=en&tbo=1&tbs=bks:1&source=hp&q=The+D1+mission+has+been+financed+entirely+by+the+German+Ministry+of+Research+and+Technology&aq=&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=&pbx=1&fp=44253eb2e797c355 '''Interavia''' (1985), Volume 40, p. 1170] Google Books Quote: "This is the first time that control of a payload aboard a manned Shuttle has been in non-US hands. The D1 mission has been financed entirely by the German Ministry of Research and Technology. .."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.damec.dk/vis.asp?id=44 |title=Columbia Spacelab D2 – STS-55 |publisher=Damec.dk |accessdate= December 4, 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ESAhistory/SEM4SSYOBFG_1.html ESA – '''Spacelab D1 mission – 25 years ago''' (October 26, 2010)](Retrieved December 4, 2010)</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Q-jQG5C8wwcC&pg=PA89&dq=German+funded+space+shuttle&hl=en&ei=Iqf6TLb1LsP38Aa8vM3TCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=German%20funded%20space%20shuttle&f=false Tim Furniss – '''A history of space exploration and its future''' (2003) – Page 89] (Google Books Retrieved December 4, 2010)</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=jLdTAAAAMAAJ&q=German-funded+Spacelab+mission+made+use+of+the+ESA+Space+Sled&dq=German-funded+Spacelab+mission+made+use+of+the+ESA+Space+Sled&hl=en&ei=p6z6TIT_EoH88Aa2zcXwCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA Reginald Turnill – '''Jane's spaceflight directory''' (1986) – Page 139] (Google Books Quote, "SM 22: the 1st German-funded Spacelab mission made use of the ESA Space Sled.")</ref> In addition, [[STS-47|SL-J]] was partially funded by Japan.<ref name=life>[http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis2/Chapter4_Programs/SL_J/SL_J_Intro.html '''Life into Space''' (1995/2000) – Volume 2, Chapter 4, Page: Spacelab-J (SL-J) Payload]. [http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/ NASA Life into Space].</ref>
At launch, it consisted of the "stack", including a dark orange-colored [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]] (ET);<ref name="et_paint1">[http://www.msfc.nasa.gov/news/news/releases/1999/99-193.html "NASA Takes Delivery of 100th Space Shuttle External Tank"]. NASA, August 16, 1999. Quote: "...orange spray-on foam used to insulate...."</ref><ref name="et_paint2">[http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2004/dec/HQ_04hh_external_tank.html "Media Invited To See Shuttle External Fuel Tank Ship From Michoud"]. NASA, December 28, 2004. Quote: "The gigantic, rust-colored external tank..."</ref> two white, slender [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|Solid Rocket Boosters]] (SRBs); and the [[Space Shuttle orbiter|Orbiter Vehicle]] (OV), which contained the [[List of Space Shuttle crews|crew]] and payload. Some payloads were launched into higher orbits with either of two different booster stages developed for the STS (single-stage [[Payload Assist Module]] or two-stage [[Inertial Upper Stage]]). The Space Shuttle was stacked in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] and the stack mounted on a mobile launch platform held down by four [[Pyrotechnic fastener|frangible nuts]]<ref name=nuts0>{{citation|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/pdf/290339main_8-388221J.pdf|title=Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|accessdate=July 15, 2012|publisher=NASA|author=NASA|year=2008}}</ref> on each SRB which were detonated at launch.<ref>{{cite web|title=Solid Rocket Boosters|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/srb.html|publisher=NASA KSC|accessdate=2011-06-30}}</ref>
The Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional rocket. It lifted off under the power of its two SRBs and three [[Space Shuttle Main Engine|main engines]], which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the external tank. The Space Shuttle had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional thrust during liftoff and first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by [[NASA recovery ship|ships]] for refurbishment and reuse. The Shuttle orbiter and external tank continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for [[low Earth orbit]], the main engines were shut down. The external tank, attached by two frangible nuts<ref name="nuts">{{cite web| url =http://www.fbodaily.com/cbd/archive/1997/11(November)/21-Nov-1997/25sol002.htm|title= PSA #1977| accessdate=July 15, 2012|publisher=Loren Data Corp.}}</ref> was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere.<ref name=etuse/> After jettisoning the external tank, the [[orbital maneuvering system]] (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.
The orbiter carried [[astronaut|people]] and payloads such as satellites or space station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or [[thermosphere]].<ref name="atmos">{{cite web| url= http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/space/atmosphere.html|title=Earth's Atmosphere|accessdate=October 25, 2007|publisher=NASA|year=1995|author=NASA |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071013232332/http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/space/atmosphere.html |archivedate = October 13, 2007}}</ref> Usually, five to seven crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members, the commander and pilot, were sufficient for a minimal flight, as in the first four "test" flights, STS-1 through STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about {{convert|22700|kg|lb|sigfig=3|sp=us}}, but could be increased depending on the choice of launch configuration. The orbiter carried its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], and also the capture and return of large payloads back to Earth.
When the orbiter's space mission was complete, it fired its OMS thrusters to drop out of orbit and [[Atmospheric reentry|re-enter]] the lower atmosphere.<ref name="atmos"/> During descent, the orbiter passed through different layers of the atmosphere and decelerated from [[hypersonic]] speed primarily by [[aerobraking]]. In the lower atmosphere and landing phase, it was more like a [[Glider aircraft|glider]] but with [[reaction control system]] (RCS) thrusters and [[fly-by wire]]-controlled hydraulically-actuated flight surfaces controlling its descent. It landed on a long runway as a spaceplane. The aerodynamic shape was a compromise between the demands of radically different speeds and air pressures during re-entry, hypersonic flight, and subsonic atmospheric flight. As a result, the orbiter had a relatively high [[sink rate]] at low altitudes, and it transitioned during re-entry from using RCS thrusters at very high altitudes to flight surfaces in the lower atmosphere.
==Early history==
{{Further|Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle design process}}
[[File:President Nixon and James Fletcher Discuss the Space Shuttle - GPN-2002-000109.jpg|thumb|right|President Nixon (right) with [[NASA Administrator]] [[James C. Fletcher|Fletcher]] in January 1972, three months before Congress approved funding for the Shuttle program]]
The formal design of what became the Space Shuttle began with "Phase A" contract design studies issued in the late 1960s. However, conceptualization [[Space Shuttle design process|began two decades earlier]], before the [[Apollo program]] of the 1960s. One of the places the concept of a spacecraft returning from space to a horizontal landing originated was within [[NACA]], in 1954, in the form of an [[aeronautics]] research experiment later named the [[North American X-15|X-15]]. The NACA proposal was submitted by [[Walter Dornberger]].
In 1958, the X-15 concept further developed into proposal to launch an X-15 into space, and another [[X-plane|X-series]] [[spaceplane]] proposal, called the [[X-20 Dyna-Soar|X-20]], which was not constructed, as well as variety of aerospace plane concepts and studies. [[Neil Armstrong]] was selected to pilot both the X-15 and the X-20. Though the X-20 was not built, another spaceplane similar to the X-20 was built several years later and delivered to NASA in January 1966 called the [[Northrop HL-10|HL-10]] ("HL" indicated "horizontal landing").
In the mid-1960s, the [[US Air Force]] conducted a series of classified [[North American DC-3#History|studies]] on next-generation space transportation systems and concluded that semi-reusable designs were the cheapest choice. It proposed a development program with an immediate start on a "Class I" vehicle with expendable boosters, followed by slower development of a "Class II" semi-reusable design and perhaps a "Class III" fully reusable design later. In 1967, [[George Mueller (NASA)|George Mueller]] held a one-day symposium at NASA headquarters to study the options. Eighty people attended and presented a wide variety of designs, including earlier Air Force designs as the Dyna-Soar (X-20).
In 1968, NASA officially began work on what was then known as the Integrated Launch and Re-entry Vehicle (ILRV). At the same time, NASA held a separate [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]] (SSME) competition. NASA offices in [[Houston]] and [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] jointly issued a [[Request for Proposal]] (RFP) for ILRV studies to design a spacecraft that could deliver a payload to orbit but also re-enter the atmosphere and fly back to Earth. For example, one of the responses was for a two-stage design, featuring a large booster and a small orbiter, called the [[North American DC-3|DC-3]], one of several Phase A Shuttle designs. After the aforementioned "Phase A" studies, B, C, and D phases progressively evaluated in-depth designs up to 1972. In the final design, the bottom stage was recoverable solid rocket boosters, and the top stage used an expendable external tank.<ref name=lindroos>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmview.com/spaceodysseytwo/spacelvs/index.htm |title=INTRODUCTION TO FUTURE LAUNCH VEHICLE PLANS [1963–2001] Updated 6/15/2001, by Marcus Lindroos |publisher=Pmview.com |date=June 15, 2001 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
In 1969, President [[Richard Nixon]] decided to [[Space Shuttle design process#Decision-making process|support proceeding]] with Space Shuttle development. A series of development programs and analysis refined the basic design, prior to full development and testing. In August 1973, the [[Martin-Marietta X-24B|X-24B]] proved that an unpowered spaceplane could re-enter Earth's atmosphere for a horizontal landing.
Across the Atlantic, European ministers met in Belgium in 1973 to authorize Western Europe's manned orbital project and its main contribution to Space Shuttle{{mdash}}the [[Spacelab]] program.<ref name="sl98"/> Spacelab would provide a multi-disciplinary orbital space laboratory and additional space equipment for the Shuttle.<ref name="sl98"/>
==Description==
[[File:Columbia STS-1 arrival at launch pad.jpg|thumb|right|STS-1 on the launch pad, 1981]]
The Space Shuttle was the first operational orbital spacecraft designed for [[Reusable launch system|reuse]]. It carried different payloads to [[low Earth orbit]], provided crew rotation and supplies for the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), and performed servicing missions. The orbiter could also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return them to Earth. Each Shuttle was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life, although this was later extended. The person in charge of designing the STS was [[Maxime Faget]], who had also overseen the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]], and [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]] spacecraft designs. The crucial factor in the size and shape of the Shuttle Orbiter was the requirement that it be able to accommodate the largest planned commercial and military satellites, and have over 1,000 mile cross-range recovery range to meet the requirement for classified USAF missions for a once-around abort from a launch to a [[polar orbit]]. This military specified 1,085 nm cross range requirement is one of the primary reasons that the Shuttle was designed with such large wings, compared to modern commercial designs with very minimal control surfaces and glide capability. Factors involved in opting for solid rockets and an expendable fuel tank included the desire of the Pentagon to obtain a high-capacity payload vehicle for satellite deployment, and the desire of the Nixon administration to reduce the costs of [[space exploration]] by developing a spacecraft with reusable components.
Each Space Shuttle is a [[reusable launch system]] that is composed of three main assemblies: the reusable [[Space Shuttle Orbiter|Orbiter Vehicle]] (OV), the expendable [[Space Shuttle External Tank|external tank]] (ET), and the two reusable [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket boosters]] (SRBs).<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_STS.html Shuttle Basics]. NASA.</ref> Only the orbiter entered orbit shortly after the tank and boosters are jettisoned. The vehicle was launched vertically like a conventional rocket, and the orbiter glided to a horizontal landing like an airplane, after which it was refurbished for reuse. The SRBs parachuted to splashdown in the ocean where they were towed back to shore and refurbished for later Shuttle missions.
[[File:SRBsepfromDiscovery07042006.png|thumb|right|''Discovery'' rockets into orbit, seen here just after Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation]]
Five space-worthy orbiters were built: [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] (OV-102), [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']] (OV-099), [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']] (OV-103), [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']] (OV-104), and [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|''Endeavour'']] (OV-105). A mock-up, [[Space Shuttle Inspiration|''Inspiration'']], currently stands at the entrance to the Astronaut Hall of Fame. An additional craft, [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|''Enterprise'']] (OV-101), was not built for orbital space flight, and was used only for testing gliding and landing. ''Enterprise'' was originally intended to be made fully space-worthy after use for the approach and landing test (ALT) program, but it was found more economical to upgrade the structural test article STA-099 into orbiter ''Challenger'' (OV-099). ''Challenger'' [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|disintegrated]] 73 seconds after launch in 1986, and ''Endeavour'' was built as a replacement for ''Challenger'' from structural spare components. ''Columbia'' [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|broke apart]] over Texas during re-entry in 2003. Building Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' cost about US$1.7 billion. One Space Shuttle launch costs around $450 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/information/shuttle_faq.html |title=NASA – Space Shuttle and International Space Station |publisher=Nasa.gov |accessdate=August 7, 2010}}</ref>
[[Roger A. Pielke, Jr.]] has estimated that the [[Space Shuttle program]] has cost about US$170 billion (2008 dollars) through early 2008. This works out to an average cost per flight of about US$1.5 billion.<ref name=duggins>[http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/admin/publication_files/resource-2656-2008.18.pdf ''The Rise and Fall of the Space Shuttle''], Book Review: Final Countdown: NASA and the End of the Space Shuttle Program by Pat Duggins, American Scientist, 2008, Vol. 96, No. 5, p. 32.</ref> However, two missions were paid for by Germany, Spacelab [[STS-61-A|D1]] and [[STS-55|D2]] (D for ''Deutschland'') with a payload control center in [[Oberpfaffenhofen]], Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.damec.dk/vis.asp?id=44 |title=Columbia Spacelab D2 – STS-55 |publisher=Damec.dk |accessdate=August 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.eads.com/1024/en/investor/News_and_Events/news_ir/2008/20081128_eads_astrium_spacelab.html ] {{Dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> D1 was the first time that control of a manned STS mission payload was not in U.S. hands.<ref name=Interavia85/>
At times, the orbiter itself was referred to as the Space Shuttle. This was not technically correct. The actual ''Space Shuttle'' was the combination of the orbiter, the external tank, and the two solid rocket boosters. These components were assembled in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building]], originally built to assemble the Apollo Saturn V rocket was referred to as the "stack".<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/events/exhibits/html/s91-39574.html NASA - NASA - JSC Exhibits<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Responsibility for the Shuttle components was spread among multiple NASA field centers. The Kennedy Space Center was responsible for launch, landing and turnaround operations for equatorial orbits (the only orbit profile actually used in the program), the US Air Force at the [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] was responsible for launch, landing and turnaround operations for polar orbits (though this was never used), the [[Johnson Space Center]] served as the central point for all Shuttle operations, the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] was responsible for the main engines, external tank, and solid rocket boosters, the [[John C. Stennis Space Center]] handled main engine testing, and the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]] managed the global tracking network.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/centers.html |title=Nasa Centers And Responsibilities |publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
===Orbiter vehicle===
{{Main|Space Shuttle orbiter}}
[[File:Atlantis is landing after STS-30 mission.jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']] deploys the [[landing gear]] before landing on a selected runway just like a common aircraft.]]
The orbiter resembles a conventional aircraft, with double-[[delta wings]] swept 81° at the inner leading edge and 45° at the outer leading edge. Its vertical stabilizer's leading edge is swept back at a 50° angle. The four [[elevon]]s, mounted at the trailing edge of the wings, and the [[rudder]]/speed brake, attached at the trailing edge of the stabilizer, with the body flap, controlled the orbiter during descent and landing.
The orbiter's payload bay measures {{convert|15|by|60|ft|m|sigfig=2|sp=us}}, comprising most of the [[fuselage]]. Information declassified in 2011 showed that the payload bay was designed specifically to accommodate the [[KH-9 HEXAGON]] spy satellite operated by the [[National Reconnaissance Office]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Guillemette |first=Roger |url=http://news.yahoo.com/declassified-us-spy-satellites-reveal-rare-look-secret-140205867.html |title=Declassified US Spy Satellites Reveal Rare Look at Secret Cold War Space Program |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=September 20, 2011 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref> Two mostly symmetrical lengthwise payload bay doors hinged on either side of the bay comprise its entire top. Payloads are generally loaded horizontally into the bay while the orbiter is oriented vertically on the launch pad and unloaded vertically in the near-weightless orbital environment by the orbiter's robotic [[Canada arm|remote manipulator arm]] (under astronaut control), EVA astronauts, or under the payloads' own power (as for satellites attached to a rocket "upper stage" for deployment.)
Three Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) are mounted on the orbiter's aft fuselage in a triangular pattern. The engine nozzles can swivel 10.5 degrees up and down, and 8.5 degrees from side to side during ascent to change the direction of their thrust to steer the Shuttle. The orbiter structure is made primarily from [[Aluminium|aluminum]] [[alloy]], although the engine structure is made primarily from [[titanium]] alloy.
The space-capable orbiters built were [[Space Shuttle Columbia|OV-102 ''Columbia'']], [[Space Shuttle Challenger|OV-099 ''Challenger'']], [[Space Shuttle Discovery|OV-103 ''Discovery'']], [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|OV-104 ''Atlantis'']], and [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|OV-105 ''Endeavour'']].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/orbiters.html |title= Orbiter Vehicles |publisher=NASA Kennedy Space Center |accessdate=October 11, 2009 }}</ref>
<center><gallery>
File:Atlantis on Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.jpg|[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] transported by a [[Boeing 747]] [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]] (SCA), 1998 (NASA)
File:Space Shuttle Transit.jpg|[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'']] being transported by a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft
File:STS-79 rollout.jpg|An overhead view of ''Atlantis'' as it sits atop the [[Mobile Launcher Platform]] (MLP) before [[STS-79]]. Two Tail Service Masts (TSMs) to either side of the orbiter's tail provide umbilical connections for propellant loading and electrical power.
File:Sound_suppression_water_system_test_at_KSC_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg|Water is released onto the mobile launcher platform on [[Launch Pad 39A]] at the start of a sound suppression system test in 2004. During launch, {{convert|350000|USgal|L}} of water are poured onto the pad in 41 seconds.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sound Suppression Water System Test|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/sound-suppression-system.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2011-06-30}}</ref>
</gallery></center>
===External tank===
{{Main|Space Shuttle external tank}}
The main function of the Space Shuttle external tank was to supply the liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel to the main engines. It was also the backbone of the launch vehicle, providing attachment points for the two Solid Rocket Boosters and the Orbiter. The external tank was the only part of the Shuttle system that was not reused. Although the external tanks were always discarded, it was possible to take them into orbit and re-use them (such as for incorporation into a space station).<ref name=etuse>[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940004970_1994004970.pdf NASA-CR-195281, "Utilization of the external tanks of the space transportation system"]. NASA, August 23–27, 1982.</ref><ref name=etuse2>[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/stsation.htm STS External Tank Station]. astronautix.com</ref>
===Solid rocket boosters===
{{Main|Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster}}
Two solid rocket boosters (SRBs) each provided 12.5 million newtons (2.8 million lbf) of thrust at liftoff,<ref name="Columbia Accid Report D.7">[http://caib.nasa.gov/news/report/pdf/vol2/part07.pdf Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report, Vol II, Appendix D.7]. NASA, October 2003.</ref> which was 83% of the total thrust at liftoff. The SRBs were jettisoned two minutes after launch at a height of about {{convert|150000|ft|km|sigfig=2|sp=us}}, and then deployed parachutes and landed in the ocean to be recovered.<ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Space Shuttle Columbia Launch|url=http://www.asterpix.com/console?as=1203639196321-20328515dc }}{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> The SRB cases were made of steel about ½ inch (13 mm) thick.<ref>{{cite web|author=NASA|url=http://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v2appl2b.htm|title=Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2011-06-30}}</ref> The Solid Rocket Boosters were re-used many times; the casing used in [[Ares I]] engine testing in 2009 consisted of motor cases that had been flown, collectively, on 48 Shuttle missions, including [[STS-1]].<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/09-053.html NASA Ares I First Stage Motor to be Tested August 25]. NASA, July 20, 2009.</ref>
===Orbiter add-ons===
The orbiter could be used in conjunction with a variety of add-ons depending on the mission. This has included orbital laboratories ([[Spacelab]], [[Spacehab]]), boosters for launching payloads farther into space ([[Inertial Upper Stage]], [[Payload Assist Module]]), and other functions, such as provided by [[Extended Duration Orbiter]], [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]]s, or [[Canadarm]] (RMS). An upper-stage called [[Transfer Orbit Stage]] (Orbital Science Corp. TOS-21) was also used once.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_stage/tos-21.htm |title=Gunter's Space Page – TOS-21H |publisher=Space.skyrocket.de |date=September 25, 1992 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref> Other types of systems and racks were part of the modular Spacelab system {{mdash}}pallets, igloo, IPS, etc., which also supported special missions such as [[Shuttle Radar Topography Mission|SRTM]].<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web|url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/|title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions|publisher=NASA|date=March 15, 1999|accessdate=February 11, 2011}}</ref>
<center><gallery>
File:Mplm in shuttle.jpg|[[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module|MPLM ''Leonardo'']]
File:1989 s34 Galileo Deploy2.jpg|IUS deploying with [[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]
File:SBS-3 with PAM-D stage.jpg|[[Payload Assist Module|PAM-D]] with satellite
File:EDO pallet.jpg|[[Extended Duration Orbiter|EDO]] being installed
File:STS-9 Spacelab 1.jpg|[[Spacelab]] in orbit
File:1996 s72 Scott EVA.jpg|[[Canadarm|RMS (Canadarm)]]
File:Spacehab S107e05359.jpg|[[Spacehab]]
</gallery></center>
====Spacelab====
{{main|Spacelab}}
[[File:German Spacelab 03.JPG|thumb|right|Spacelab LM2]]
A major component of the Space Shuttle Program was Spacelab, primarily contributed by a consortium of European countries, and operated in conjunction with the United States and international partners.<ref name=NASA28/> Supported by a modular system of pressurized modules, pallets, and systems, Spacelab missions executed on multidisciplinary science, orbital logistics, international cooperation.<ref name=NASA28/> Over 29 missions flew on subjects ranging from astronomy, microgravity, radar, and life sciences, to name a few.<ref name=NASA28/> Spacelab hardware also supported missions such as Hubble (HST) servicing and space station resupply.<ref name=NASA28/> STS-2 and STS-3 provided testing, and the first full mission was Spacelab-1 ([[STS-9]]) launched on November 28, 1983.<ref name=NASA28/>
Spacelab formally began in 1973, after a meeting in Brussels, Belgium, by European heads of state.<ref name="sl98">{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_10_1998_i_EN.html |title=ESA – '''N° 10-1998: 25 years of Spacelab – Go for Space Station''' |publisher=Esa.int |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref> Within the decade, Spacelab would go into orbit and provide not only Europe, but also the United States, with an orbital workshop and hardware system.<ref name="sl98"/> International cooperation, science, and exploration were realized on Spacelab.<ref name=NASA28/>
===Flight systems===
The Shuttle was one of the earliest craft to use a computerized [[fly-by-wire]] digital [[flight control system]]. This means no mechanical or hydraulic linkages connected the pilot's control stick to the control surfaces or [[reaction control system]] thrusters.
A concern with digital fly-by-wire systems is reliability. Considerable research went into the Shuttle computer system. The Shuttle used five identical redundant IBM 32-bit general purpose computers (GPCs), model [[IBM AP-101|AP-101]], constituting a type of [[embedded system]]. Four computers ran specialized software called the Primary Avionics Software System (PASS). A fifth backup computer ran separate software called the Backup Flight System (BFS). Collectively they were called the Data Processing System (DPS).<ref name="LogicD">{{cite web|publisher=NASA Office of Logic Design|url=http://www.klabs.org/mapld06/abstracts/139_ferguson_a.html|title=Implementing Space Shuttle Data Processing System Concepts in Programmable Logic Devices |accessdate=August 27, 2006 |author=Ferguson, Roscoe C. |coauthors=Robert Tate and Hiram C. Thompson}}</ref><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/space/space_shuttle.html|title=IBM and the Space Shuttle |accessdate=August 27, 2006 |author=IBM |publisher=[[IBM]]}}</ref>
[[File:SSLV ascent.jpg|thumb|upright|Simulation of SSLV at Mach 2.46 and {{convert|66000|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. The surface of the vehicle is colored by the pressure coefficient, and the gray contours represent the density of the surrounding air, as calculated using the [[Overflow (software)|overflow]] codes.]]
The design goal of the Shuttle's DPS was fail-operational/fail-safe reliability. After a single failure, the Shuttle could still continue the mission. After two failures, it could still land safely.
The four general-purpose computers operated essentially in lockstep, checking each other. If one computer failed, the three functioning computers "voted" it out of the system. This isolated it from vehicle control. If a second computer of the three remaining failed, the two functioning computers voted it out. In the unlikely case that two out of four computers simultaneously failed (a two-two split), one group was to be picked at random.
The Backup Flight System (BFS) was separately developed software running on the fifth computer, used only if the entire four-computer primary system failed. The BFS was created because although the four primary computers were hardware redundant, they all ran the same software, so a generic software problem could crash all of them. [[Embedded system]] [[Avionics|avionic]] software was developed under totally different conditions from public commercial software: the number of code lines was tiny compared to a public commercial software, changes were only made infrequently and with extensive testing, and many programming and test personnel worked on the small amount of computer code. However, in theory it could have still failed, and the BFS existed for that contingency. While the BFS could run in parallel with PASS, the BFS never engaged to take over control from PASS during any Shuttle mission.
The software for the Shuttle computers was written in a high-level language called [[HAL/S]], somewhat similar to [[PL/I]]. It is specifically designed for a [[Real-time computing|real time]] [[embedded system]] environment.
The IBM AP-101 computers originally had about 424 kilobytes of [[magnetic core memory]] each. The CPU could process about 400,000 instructions per second. They had no hard disk drive, and load software from magnetic tape cartridges.
In 1990, the original computers were replaced with an upgraded model AP-101S, which had about 2.5 times the memory capacity (about 1 megabyte) and three times the processor speed (about 1.2 million instructions per second). The memory was changed from magnetic core to semiconductor with battery backup.
Early Shuttle missions, starting in November 1983, took along the [[GRiD Compass]], arguably one of the first laptop computers. The GRiD was given the name SPOC, for Shuttle Portable Onboard Computer. Use on the Shuttle required both hardware and software modifications which were incorporated into later versions of the commercial product. It was used to monitor and display the Shuttle's ground position, path of the next two orbits, show where the Shuttle had line of sight communications with ground stations, and determine points for location-specific observations of the Earth. The Compass sold poorly, as it cost at least US$8000, but it offered unmatched performance for its weight and size.<ref name="GRiD">{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/events/index.php?id=1139464298 |title=Pioneering the Laptop:Engineering the GRiD Compass |accessdate=October 25, 2007 |publisher=The Computer History Museum|year=2006 |author=The Computer History Museum}}</ref> NASA was one of its main customers.<ref name="GRiDNASA">{{cite web|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20020090827_2002146711.pdf|title=Portable Compute |accessdate=June 23, 2010 |publisher=NASA |year=1985 |author=NASA}}</ref>
===Orbiter markings and insignia===
The [[typeface]] used on the Space Shuttle Orbiter is [[Helvetica]].<ref>{{cite video |date= September 12, 2007 |title=[[Helvetica (film)|Helvetica]] |medium= Documentary }}</ref>
The prototype orbiter ''Enterprise'' originally had a [[flag of the United States]] on the upper surface of the left wing and the letters "USA" in black on the right wing. The name "Enterprise" was painted in black on the payload bay doors just above the hinge and behind the crew module; on the aft end of the payload bay doors was the [[NASA insignia|NASA "worm" logotype]] in gray. Underneath the rear of the payload bay doors on the side of the fuselage just above the wing is the text "United States" in black with a [[flag of the United States]] ahead of it.
The first operational orbiter, ''Columbia'', originally had the same markings as ''Enterprise'', although the letters "USA" on the right wing were slightly larger and spaced farther apart. ''Columbia'' also had black markings which ''Enterprise'' lacked on its forward RCS module, around the cockpit windows, and on its vertical stabilizer, and had distinctive black "chines" on the forward part of its upper wing surfaces, which none of the other orbiters had.
''Challenger'' established a modified marking scheme for the shuttle fleet that would be matched by ''Discovery'', ''Atlantis'' and ''Endeavour''. The letters "USA" in black above an American flag were displayed on the left wing, with the NASA "worm" logotype in gray centered above the name of the orbiter in black on the right wing. In addition, the name of the orbiter was inscribed not on the payload bay doors, but on the forward fuselage just below and behind the cockpit windows. This would make the name visible when the shuttle was photographed in orbit with the doors open.
In 1983, ''Enterprise'' had its wing markings changed to match ''Challenger'', and the NASA "worm" logotype on the aft end of the payload bay doors was changed from gray to black. Some black markings were added to the nose, cockpit windows and vertical tail to more closely resemble the flight vehicles, but the name "Enterprise" remained on the payload bay doors as there was never any need to open them. ''Columbia'' had its name moved to the forward fuselage to match the other flight vehicles after [[STS-61-C]], during the 1986–88 hiatus when the shuttle fleet was grounded following the [[Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster|loss of ''Challenger'']], but retained its original wing markings until its last overhaul (after [[STS-93]]), and its unique black wing "chines" for the remainder of its operational life.
Beginning in 1998, the flight vehicles' markings were modified to incorporate the NASA [[NASA insignia|"meatball" insignia]]. The "worm" logotype, which the agency had phased out, was removed from the payload bay doors and the "meatball" insignia was added aft of the "United States" text on the lower aft fuselage. The "meatball" insignia was also displayed on the left wing, with the American flag above the orbiter's name, left-justified rather than centered, on the right wing. The three surviving flight vehicles, ''Discovery'', ''Atlantis'' and ''Endeavour'', still bear these markings as they head for retirement as museum displays in 2012. ''Enterprise'' became the property of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in 1985 and was no longer under NASA's control when these changes were made, hence the prototype orbiter still has its 1983 markings and still has its name on the payload bay doors.
===Upgrades===
[[File:STSCPanel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']] was the first Shuttle to fly with a [[glass cockpit]], on [[STS-101]]. (composite image)]]
The Space Shuttle was initially developed in the 1970s,<ref name="shuttle_sale">{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=9574776 |title=Recession Special: NASA Cuts Space Shuttle Price |last=Dunn |first=Marcia |date= January 15, 2010 |publisher=[[ABC News]] |accessdate=January 15, 2010}}</ref> but received many upgrades and modifications afterward for improvements ranging from performance and reliability to safety. Internally, the Shuttle remained largely similar to the original design, with the exception of the improved avionics computers. In addition to the computer upgrades, the original analog primary flight instruments were replaced with modern full-color, flat-panel display screens, called a [[glass cockpit]], which is similar to those of contemporary airliners. With the coming of the ISS, the orbiter's internal airlocks were replaced with external docking systems to allow for a greater amount of cargo to be stored on the Shuttle's mid-deck during station resupply missions.
The Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) had several improvements to enhance reliability and power. This explains phrases such as "Main engines throttling up to 104 percent." This did not mean the engines were being run over a safe limit. The 100 percent figure was the original specified power level. During the lengthy development program, [[Rocketdyne]] determined the engine was capable of safe reliable operation at 104 percent of the originally specified thrust. NASA could have rescaled the output number, saying in essence 104 percent is now 100 percent. To clarify this would have required revising much previous documentation and software, so the 104 percent number was retained. SSME upgrades were denoted as "block numbers", such as block I, block II, and block IIA. The upgrades improved engine reliability, maintainability and performance. The 109% thrust level was finally reached in flight hardware with the Block II engines in 2001. The normal maximum throttle was 104 percent, with 106 percent or 109 percent used for mission aborts.
For the first two missions, [[STS-1]] and [[STS-2]], the external tank was painted white to protect the insulation that covers much of the tank, but improvements and testing showed that it was not required. The weight saved by not painting the tank resulted in an increase in payload capability to orbit.<ref name="aerospaceweb">{{cite web|url=http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/spacecraft/q0285.shtml|title=Space Shuttle External Tank Foam Insulation |accessdate=October 25, 2007 |publisher=Aerospaceweb.org |year=2006 |author=Aerospaceweb.org}}</ref> Additional weight was saved by removing some of the internal "stringers" in the hydrogen tank that proved unnecessary. The resulting "light-weight external tank" has been used on the vast majority of Shuttle missions. [[STS-91]] saw the first flight of the "super light-weight external tank". This version of the tank is made of the 2195 aluminum-lithium alloy. It weighs 3.4 metric tons (7,500 lb) less than the last run of lightweight tanks. As the Shuttle was not flown unmanned, each of these improvements was "tested" on operational flights.
The SRBs (Solid Rocket Boosters) underwent improvements as well. Design engineers added a third [[O-ring]] seal to the joints between the segments after the 1986 [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]].
[[File:SSME1.jpg|thumb|upright|The three nozzles of the [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]] with the two [[Orbital Maneuvering System]] (OMS) pods, and the [[vertical stabilizer]] above.]]
Several other SRB improvements were planned to improve performance and safety, but never came to be. These culminated in the considerably simpler, lower cost, probably safer and better-performing [[Advanced Solid Rocket Booster]]. These rockets entered production in the early to mid-1990s to support the Space Station, but were later canceled to save money after the expenditure of $2.2 billion.<ref>{{cite web |author=Encyclopedia Astronautica |url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvfam/shuttle.htm |title=Shuttle |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> The loss of the ASRB program resulted in the development of the Super LightWeight external Tank (SLWT), which provided some of the increased payload capability, while not providing any of the safety improvements. In addition, the Air Force developed their own much lighter single-piece SRB design using a filament-wound system, but this too was canceled.
[[STS-70]] was delayed in 1995, when [[woodpecker]]s bored holes in the foam insulation of ''Discovery'''s external tank. Since then, NASA has installed commercial plastic owl decoys and inflatable owl balloons which had to be removed prior to launch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/sts-70/woodpecker.html|title=Woodpeckers damage STS-70 External Tank|accessdate=August 27, 2006 |author=Jim Dumoulin |publisher=NASA}}</ref> The delicate nature of the foam insulation had been the cause of damage to the [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system|Thermal Protection System]], the tile heat shield and heat wrap of the orbiter. NASA remained confident that this damage, while it was the primary cause of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster]] on February 1, 2003, would not jeopardize the completion of the International Space Station (ISS) in the projected time allotted.
A cargo-only, unmanned variant of the Shuttle was variously proposed and rejected since the 1980s. It was called the [[Shuttle-C]], and would have traded re-usability for cargo capability, with large potential savings from reusing technology developed for the Space Shuttle. Another proposal was to convert the payload bay into a passenger area, with versions ranging from 30 to 74 seats, three days in orbit, and cost US$1.5 million per seat.<ref name=david>{{cite web |author=Peter Wainwright (spacefuture.com) |url=http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/the_space_tourist.shtml |title=L David, R Citron, T Rogers & C D Walker, April 25–28, 1985, "The Space Tourist", AAS 85-771 to −774. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual L5 Space Development Conference held April 25–28, 1985, in Washington, D.C |publisher=Spacefuture.com |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
On the first four Shuttle missions, astronauts wore modified US Air Force high-altitude full-pressure suits, which included a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent. From the fifth flight, [[STS-5]], until the loss of [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|''Challenger'']], one-piece light blue [[nomex]] flight suits and partial-pressure helmets were worn. A less-bulky, partial-pressure version of the high-altitude pressure suits with a helmet was reinstated when Shuttle flights resumed in 1988. The Launch-Entry Suit ended its service life in late 1995, and was replaced by the full-pressure [[Advanced Crew Escape Suit]] (ACES), which resembled the [[Gemini space suit]] in design, but retained the orange color of the Launch-Entry Suit.
To extend the duration that orbiters could stay docked at the ISS, the [[Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System]] (SSPTS) was installed. The SSPTS allowed these orbiters to use power provided by the ISS to preserve their consumables. The SSPTS was first used successfully on [[STS-118]].
===Technical data===
[[File:Space Shuttle Orbiter-Illustration.jpg|thumb|right|Space Shuttle orbiter illustration]]
[[File:Plánik orbitera 2.JPG|thumb|Space Shuttle drawing]]
[[File:Shuttle Left Wing Cutaway Diagram.jpg|thumb|right|Space Shuttle wing cutaway]]
[[File:Space Shuttle vs Soyuz TM - to scale drawing.png|thumb|Space Shuttle Orbiter and [[Soyuz-TM]] (drawn to scale).]]
[[File:Space shuttles Atlantis (STS-125) and Endeavour (STS-400) on launch pads.jpg|thumb|Two Space Shuttles sit at launch pads. This particular occasion is due to the final Hubble servicing mission, where the International Space Station is unreachable, which necessitates having a Shuttle on standby for a possible rescue mission.]]
'''Orbiter specifications'''<ref name="tech">{{cite book|last=Jenkins |first=Dennis R. |title=Space Shuttle: The History of the National Space Transportation System |publisher=Voyageur Press |edition= |year= 2006 |isbn=0-9633974-5-1}}</ref> (for ''Endeavour'', OV-105)
*Length: {{convert|122.17|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=5}}
*Wingspan: {{convert|78.06|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Height: {{convert|56.58|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Empty weight: {{convert|172000|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/endeavour.html |title=John F. Kennedy Space Center – Space Shuttle Endeavour |publisher=Pao.ksc.nasa.gov |accessdate=June 17, 2009}}</ref>
*Gross liftoff weight (Orbiter only): {{convert|240000|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Maximum landing weight: {{convert|230000|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Payload to Landing (Return Payload): 32,000 lb (14,400 kg)<ref name=woodcock/>
*Maximum payload: {{convert|55250|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Payload to LEO: {{convert|53600|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Payload to LEO @ 51.6° [[Orbital Inclination|inclination]] (ISS):
*Payload to GTO: {{convert|8390|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Payload to Polar Orbit: {{convert|28000|lb|kg|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*(Note launch payloads modified by External Tank (ET) choice (ET, LWT, or SLWT)
*Payload bay dimensions: {{convert|15|by|59|ft|m|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Operational altitude: {{convert|100|to|520|nmi|km mi|lk=in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Speed: {{convert|7743|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Crossrange: {{convert|1085|nmi|km mi|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*First Stage (SSME with external tank)
**Main engines: Three Rocketdyne Block II SSMEs, each with a sea level [[thrust]] of {{convert|393800|lbf|MN|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} at 104% power <!--393,800 lbf per reference listed above.-->
**Thrust (at liftoff, sea level, 104% power, all 3 engines): {{convert|1181400|lbf|MN|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
**Specific impulse: 455 s
**Burn time: 480 s
**Fuel: Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen
*Second Stage
**Engines: 2 Orbital Maneuvering Engines
**Thrust: {{convert|53.4|kN|lbf|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} combined total vacuum thrust
**Specific impulse: 316 s
**Burn time: 1250 s
**Fuel: MMH/N2O4
*Crew: Varies.
::The earliest Shuttle flights had the minimum crew of two; many later missions a crew of five. By program end, typically seven people would fly: ([[commander]], [[Aviator|pilot]], several [[mission specialist]]s, one of whom (MS-2) acted as the [[flight engineer]] starting with STS-9 in 1983). On two occasions, eight astronauts have flown ([[STS-61-A]], [[STS-71]]). Eleven people could be accommodated in an emergency mission (see [[STS-3xx]]).
'''External tank specifications''' (for SLWT)
*Length: {{convert|46.9|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}
*Diameter: {{convert|8.4|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Propellant volume: {{convert|2025|m3|USgal|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}
*Empty weight: {{convert|26535|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=5}}
*Gross liftoff weight (for tank): {{convert|756000|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}
'''Solid Rocket Booster specifications'''
*Length: {{convert|45.46|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}<ref name="Jenkins_3rd">{{cite book|last=Jenkins |first=Dennis R. |title=Space Shuttle: The History of the National Space Transportation System |publisher=Voyageur Press |edition=Third |year= 2002 |isbn=0-9633974-5-1}}</ref>
*Diameter: {{convert|3.71|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}<ref name="Jenkins_3rd"/>
*Empty weight (per booster): {{convert|68000|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}<ref name="Jenkins_3rd"/>
*Gross liftoff weight (per booster): {{convert|571000|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}<ref name=STS_prop_systems>[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19910018886_1991018886.pdf Space Shuttle Propulsion Systems], p. 153. NASA, June 26, 1990.</ref>
*Thrust (at liftoff, sea level, per booster): {{convert|12.5|MN|lbf|abbr=on|lk=on|sigfig=2}}<ref name="Columbia Accid Report D.7"/>
*Specific impulse: 269 s
*Burn time: 124 s
'''System Stack specifications'''
*Height: {{convert|56|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Gross liftoff weight: {{convert|2000000|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}
*Total liftoff thrust: {{convert|30.16|MN|lbf|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}
==Mission profile==
[[File:Sts mprof.jpg|thumb|STS [[Space mission|mission]] profile]]
[[File:Atlantis launch plume edit.jpg|thumb|upright|Shuttle launch of ''Atlantis'' at sunset in 2001. The sun is behind the camera, and the plume's shadow intersects the [[moon]] across the sky.]]
===Launch===
{{See also|Space shuttle launch countdown|Space shuttle launch commit criteria}}
All Space Shuttle missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The [[Space shuttle launch commit criteria|weather criteria used for launch]] included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity.<ref name="weather launch criteria">{{cite web|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/release/1999/39-99.htm|title=SPACE SHUTTLE WEATHER LAUNCH COMMIT CRITERIA AND KSC END OF MISSION WEATHER LANDING CRITERIA|work=KSC Release No. 39-99|publisher=NASA Kennedy Space Center |accessdate=July 6, 2009}}</ref> The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by [[lightning]]. Aircraft are often struck by lightning with no adverse effects because the electricity of the strike is dissipated through its conductive structure and the aircraft is not electrically [[Ground (electricity)|grounded]]. Like most jet airliners, the Shuttle was mainly constructed of conductive aluminum, which would normally shield and protect the internal systems. However, upon liftoff the Shuttle sent out a long exhaust plume as it ascended, and this plume could have triggered lightning by providing a current path to ground. The NASA Anvil Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an [[anvil cloud]] could not appear within a distance of 10 [[nautical miles]].<ref>Weather at About.com. [http://weather.about.com/od/thunderstormsandlightning/f/anvilrule.html What is the Anvil Rule for Thunderstorms?]{{dead link|date=July 2011}}. Retrieved June 10, 2008.</ref> The Shuttle Launch Weather Officer monitored conditions until the final decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition, the weather conditions had to be acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites (one of several [[Space Shuttle abort modes]]) to launch as well as the solid rocket booster recovery area.<ref name="weather launch criteria" /><ref>NASA Launch Blog. [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/sts-121/launch-vlcc_070106.html ]. Retrieved June 10, 2008.</ref> While the Shuttle might have safely endured a lightning strike, a [[Apollo 12#Mission highlights|similar strike caused problems on Apollo 12]], so for safety [[NASA]] chose not to launch the Shuttle if lightning was possible (NPR8715.5).
Historically, the Shuttle was not launched if its flight would run from December to January (a year-end rollover or YERO). Its flight software, designed in the 1970s, was not designed for this, and would require the orbiter's computers be reset through a change of year, which could cause a glitch while in orbit. In 2007, NASA engineers devised a solution so Shuttle flights could cross the year-end boundary.<ref name="YERO">{{cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |title=NASA solves YERO problem for Shuttle |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5026 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080418182718/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=5026 |archivedate=April 18, 2008 |date= February 19, 2007 |accessdate=December 22, 2007 }}</ref>
On the day of a launch, after the final hold in the countdown at T-minus 9 minutes, the Shuttle went through its final preparations for launch, and the countdown was automatically controlled by the Ground Launch Sequencer (GLS), software at the Launch Control Center, which stopped the count if it sensed a critical problem with any of the Shuttle's onboard systems. The GLS handed off the count to the Shuttle's on-board computers at T minus 31 seconds, in a process called auto sequence start.
At T-minus 16 seconds, the massive sound suppression system (SPS) began to drench the [[Mobile Launcher Platform]] (MLP) and SRB trenches with {{convert|350000|USgal|m3|sigfig=2}} of water to protect the Orbiter from damage by [[acoustical]] energy and rocket exhaust reflected from the flame trench and MLP during lift off ([http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/sound-suppression-system.html NASA article]).<ref name="sps">National Aeronautics and Space Administration. [http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/count4ssws.htm "Sound Suppression Water System"] Revised August 28, 2000. Retrieved July 9, 2006.</ref>
At T-minus 10 seconds, hydrogen igniters were activated under each engine bell to quell the stagnant gas inside the cones before ignition. Failure to burn these gases could trip the onboard sensors and create the possibility of an overpressure and explosion of the vehicle during the firing phase. The main engine turbopumps also began charging the combustion chambers with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen at this time. The computers reciprocated this action by allowing the redundant computer systems to begin the firing phase.
[[File:020408 STS110 Atlantis launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Space Shuttle Main Engine ignition]]
The three main engines ([[Space Shuttle Main Engine|SSMEs]]) started at T-minus 6.6 seconds. The main engines ignited sequentially via the Shuttle's general purpose computers (GPCs) at 120 millisecond intervals. The GPCs required that the engines reach 90 percent of their rated performance to complete the final gimbal of the main engine nozzles to liftoff configuration.<ref name="countdown101">National Aeronautics and Space Administration. [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/countdown101.html "NASA – Countdown 101"]. Retrieved July 10, 2008.</ref> When the SSMEs started, water from the sound suppression system flashed into a large volume of steam that shot southward. All three SSMEs had to reach the required 100 percent thrust within three seconds, otherwise the onboard computers would initiate an [[RSLS Abort|RSLS abort]]. If the onboard computers verified normal thrust buildup, at T minus 0 seconds, the 8 [[Pyrotechnic fastener|pyrotechnic nuts]] holding the vehicle to the pad were detonated and the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|SRBs]] were ignited. At this point the vehicle was committed to liftoff, as the SRBs could not be turned off once ignited.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/srb/posts.html |title=HSF – The Shuttle |publisher=Spaceflight.nasa.gov |accessdate=July 17, 2009}}</ref> The plume from the solid rockets exited the flame trench in a northward direction at near the speed of sound, often causing a rippling of shockwaves along the actual flame and smoke contrails. At ignition, the GPCs mandated the firing sequences via the Master Events Controller, a computer program integrated with the Shuttle's four redundant computer systems. There were extensive emergency procedures ([[Space Shuttle abort modes|abort modes]]) to handle various failure scenarios during ascent. Many of these concerned SSME failures, since that was the most complex and highly stressed component. After the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Challenger disaster]], there were extensive upgrades to the abort modes.
After the main engines started, but while the solid rocket boosters were still bolted to the pad, the offset thrust from the Shuttle's three main engines caused the entire launch stack (boosters, tank and Shuttle) to pitch down about 2 m at cockpit level. This motion was called the "nod", or "twang" in NASA jargon. As the boosters flexed back into their original shape, the launch stack pitched slowly back upright. This took approximately six seconds. At the point when it was perfectly vertical, the boosters ignited and the launch commenced. The [[Johnson Space Center]]'s [[Mission Control Center]] assumed control of the flight once the SRBs had cleared the launch tower.
Shortly after clearing the tower, the Shuttle began a combined roll, pitch and yaw maneuver that positioned the orbiter head down, with wings level and aligned with the launch pad. The Shuttle flew upside down during the ascent phase. This orientation allowed a trim angle of attack that was favorable for aerodynamic loads during the region of high dynamic pressure, resulting in a net positive load factor, as well as providing the flight crew with use of the ground as a visual reference. The vehicle climbed in a progressively flattening arc, accelerating as the weight of the SRBs and main tank decreased. To achieve low orbit requires much more horizontal than vertical acceleration. This was not visually obvious, since the vehicle rose vertically and was out of sight for most of the horizontal acceleration. The near circular orbital velocity at the {{convert|380|km|mi|sigfig=3|sp=us}} altitude of the [[International Space Station]] is 7.68 kilometers per second or {{convert|27650|km/h|mph|abbr=on|sigfig=4}}, roughly equivalent to Mach 23 at sea level. As the International Space Station orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees, missions going there must set orbital inclination to the same value in order to rendezvous with the station.
Around a point called [[Max Q]], where the aerodynamic forces are at their maximum, the main engines were temporarily throttled back to 72 percent to avoid [[overspeed (aircraft)|over-speeding]] and hence overstressing the Shuttle, particularly in vulnerable areas such as the wings. At this point, a phenomenon known as the [[Prandtl-Glauert singularity]] occurred, where condensation clouds formed during the vehicle's transition to supersonic speed.
A few seconds later, after the shuttle had gained more altitude and reached a region of lower atmospheric pressure, this dangerous point is passed. At ''T''+70 seconds the main engines throttled up to their maximum cruise thrust of 104% rated thrust.
[[File:STS-1 The Shuttle's Solid Rocket Boosters break away from Columbia's External Tank.jpg|thumb|right|Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation. The white external tank pictured was used on STS-1 and STS-2, this picture is STS-1]]
At ''T''+126 seconds after launch, [[pyrotechnic fastener]]s released the SRBs and small separation rockets pushed them laterally away from the vehicle. The SRBs parachuted back to the ocean to be reused. The Shuttle then began accelerating to orbit on the main engines. The vehicle at that point in the flight had a thrust-to-weight ratio of less than one{{spaced ndash}}the main engines actually had insufficient thrust to exceed the force of gravity, and the vertical speed given to it by the SRBs temporarily decreased. However, as the burn continued, the weight of the propellant decreased and the thrust-to-weight ratio exceeded 1 again and the ever-lighter vehicle then continued to accelerate towards orbit.
The vehicle continued to climb and take on a somewhat nose-up angle to the horizon{{spaced ndash}}it used the main engines to gain and then maintain altitude while it accelerated horizontally towards orbit. At about five and three-quarter minutes into ascent, the orbiter's direct communication links with the ground began to fade, at which point it rolled heads up to reroute its communication links to the [[Tracking and Data Relay Satellite]] system.
Finally, in the last tens of seconds of the main engine burn, the mass of the vehicle was low enough that the engines had to be throttled back to limit vehicle acceleration to 3 ''g'' (29.34 m/s²), largely for astronaut comfort. At approximately eight minutes post launch, the main engines were shut down.
The main engines were shut down before complete depletion of propellant, as running dry would have destroyed the engines. The oxygen supply was terminated before the hydrogen supply, as the SSMEs reacted unfavorably to other shutdown modes. (Liquid oxygen has a tendency to react violently, and supports combustion when it encounters hot engine metal.) The external tank was released by firing pyrotechnic fasteners, largely burning up in the atmosphere, though some fragments fell into the ocean, in either the Indian Ocean or the Pacific Ocean depending on launch profile.<ref name="tech" /> The sealing action of the tank plumbing and lack of pressure relief systems on the external tank helped it break up in the lower atmosphere. After the foam burned away during re-entry, the heat caused a pressure buildup in the remaining liquid oxygen and hydrogen until the tank exploded. This ensured that any pieces that fell back to Earth were small.
To prevent the Shuttle from following the external tank back into the lower atmosphere, the [[Orbital maneuvering system]] (OMS) engines were fired to raise the perigee higher into the upper atmosphere. On some missions (e.g., missions to the ISS), the OMS engines were also used while the main engines were still firing. The reason for putting the orbiter on a path that brought it back to Earth was not just for external tank disposal but also one of safety: if the OMS malfunctioned, or the cargo bay doors could not open for some reason, the Shuttle was already on a path to return to earth for an emergency abort landing.
====Ascent tracking====
[[File:Contraves-Goerz Kineto Tracking Mount.jpeg|thumb|Contraves-Goerz Kineto Tracking Mount used to image the space Shuttle during launch ascent]]
[[File:STS-131 afterglow.jpg|thumb|Multicolored [[afterglow]] of the [[STS-131]] launch]]
The Shuttle was monitored throughout its ascent for short range tracking (10 seconds before liftoff through 57 seconds after), medium range (7 seconds before liftoff through 110 seconds after) and long range (7 seconds before liftoff through 165 seconds after). Short range cameras included 22 16mm cameras on the Mobile Launch Platform and 8 16mm on the Fixed Service Structure, 4 high speed fixed cameras located on the perimeter of the launch complex plus and additional 42 fixed cameras with 16mm motion picture film. Medium range cameras included remotely operated tracking cameras at the launch complex plus 6 sites along the immediate coast north and south of the launch pad, each with 800mm lens and high speed cameras running 100 frames per second. These cameras ran for only 4–10 seconds due to limitations in the amount of film available. Long range cameras included those mounted on the External Tank, SRBs and orbiter itself which streamed live video back to the ground providing valuable information about any debris falling during ascent. Long range tracking cameras with 400-inch film and 200-inch video lenses were operated by a photographer at [[Playalinda Beach]] as well as 9 other sites from 38 miles north at the [[Ponce Inlet]] to 23 miles south to [[Patrick Air Force Base]] (PAFB) and additional mobile optical tracking camera was stationed on Merritt Island during launches. A total of 10 HD cameras were used both for ascent information for engineers and broadcast feeds to networks such as [[NASA TV]] and [[HDNet]] The number of cameras significantly increased and numerous existing cameras were upgraded at the recommendation of the [[Columbia Accident Investigation Board]] to provide better information about the debris during launch. Debris was also tracked using a pair of [[Weibel]] Continuous Pulse Doppler X-band radars, one on board the SRB recovery ship [[MV Liberty Star]] positioned north east of the launch pad and on a ship positioned south of the launch pad. Additionally, during the first 2 flights following the loss of Columbia and her crew, a pair of NASA [[WB-57]] reconnaissance aircraft equipped with HD Video and Infrared flew at {{convert|60000|ft}} to provide additional views of the launch ascent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shuttle launch imagery from land, air and water|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/pdf/167722main_LaunchImagery06.pdf}}</ref> Kennedy Space Center also invested nearly $3 million in improvements to the digital video analysis systems in support of debris tracking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/shuttle/rtf_optics100903.html |title=New Eyes for Shuttle Launches |publisher=Nasa.gov |date=November 22, 2007 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
===In orbit===
[[File:STS-132 Atlantis at ISS 1.jpg|thumb|right|''Atlantis'' docked at ''Harmony'' module of the International Space Station]]
Once in orbit, the Shuttle usually flew at an altitude of 200 miles (321.9 km), and occasionally as high as 400 miles.<ref>{{cite web|author=Anthony R. Curtis, editor@spacetoday.org |url=http://www.spacetoday.org/Questions/PolarSats.html |title=Space Today Online – Answers To Your Questions |publisher=Spacetoday.org |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref> In the 1980s and 1990s, many flights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA [[Spacelab]], or launching various types of satellites and science probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the [[Extended Duration Orbiter]] add-on or when attached to a space station.
===Re-entry and landing===
{{refimprove section|date=June 2007}}
Almost the entire Space Shuttle re-entry procedure, except for lowering the landing gear and deploying the air data probes, were normally performed under computer control. However, the re-entry could be flown entirely manually if an emergency arose. The approach and landing phase could be controlled by the autopilot, but was usually hand flown.
[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis in the sky on July 21, 2011, to its final landing.jpg|thumb|right|Glowing plasma trail from Shuttle re-entry as seen from the Space Station]]
The vehicle began re-entry by firing the Orbital maneuvering system engines, while flying upside down, backside first, in the opposite direction to orbital motion for approximately three minutes, which reduced the Shuttle's velocity by about {{convert|200|mph|km/h|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}. The resultant slowing of the Shuttle lowered its orbital [[perigee]] down into the upper atmosphere. The Shuttle then flipped over, by pushing its nose down (which was actually "up" relative to the Earth, because it was flying upside down). This OMS firing was done roughly halfway around the globe from the landing site.
The vehicle started encountering more significant air density in the lower thermosphere at about {{convert|400000|ft|km|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}, at around [[Mach number|Mach]] 25, {{convert|8200|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}. The vehicle was controlled by a combination of [[Reaction Control System|RCS thrusters]] and control surfaces, to fly at a 40-degree nose-up attitude, producing high drag, not only to slow it down to landing speed, but also to reduce reentry heating. As the vehicle encountered progressively denser air, it began a gradual transition from spacecraft to aircraft. In a straight line, its 40-degree nose-up attitude would cause the descent angle to flatten-out, or even rise. The vehicle therefore performed a series of four steep S-shaped banking turns, each lasting several minutes, at up to 70 degrees of bank, while still maintaining the 40-degree angle of attack. In this way it dissipated speed sideways rather than upwards. This occurred during the 'hottest' phase of re-entry, when the heat-shield glowed red and the G-forces were at their highest. By the end of the last turn, the transition to aircraft was almost complete. The vehicle leveled its wings, lowered its nose into a shallow dive and began its approach to the landing site.
<center><gallery>
File:Stsheat.jpg|[[Simulation]] of the outside of the Shuttle as it heats up to over 1,500 °C during re-entry.
File:Nasa Shuttle Test Using Electron Beam full.jpg|A Space Shuttle model undergoes a [[wind tunnel]] test in 1975. This test is simulating the ionized gasses that surround a Shuttle as it reenters the atmosphere.
File:CFD Shuttle.jpg|A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry.
</gallery></center>
The orbiter's maximum [[glide ratio]]/[[lift-to-drag ratio]] varies considerably with speed, ranging from 1:1 at [[hypersonic]] speeds, 2:1 at supersonic speeds and reaching 4.5:1 at subsonic speeds during approach and landing.<ref>http://klabs.org/DEI/Processor/shuttle/shuttle_tech_conf/1985008580.pdf</ref>
In the lower atmosphere, the orbiter flies much like a conventional glider, except for a much higher descent rate, over {{convert|50|m/s|km/h mph|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}(9800fpm). At approximately Mach 3, two air data probes, located on the left and right sides of the orbiter's forward lower fuselage, are deployed to sense air pressure related to the vehicle's movement in the atmosphere.
====Final approach and landing phase====
[[File:Sts-127 landing.ogg|thumb|[[STS-127]], Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' landing video (2009)]]
When the approach and landing phase began, the orbiter was at a {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} altitude, {{convert|12|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the runway. The pilots applied aerodynamic braking to help slow down the vehicle. The orbiter's speed was reduced from {{convert|682|to|346|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}, approximately, at touch-down (compared to {{convert|260|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} for a jet airliner). The landing gear was deployed while the Orbiter was flying at {{convert|430|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. To assist the speed brakes, a {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} drag chute was deployed either after main gear or nose gear touchdown (depending on selected chute deploy mode) at about {{convert|343|km/h|mph|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}. The chute was jettisoned once the orbiter slowed to {{convert|110|km/h|mph|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}.
<gallery>
File:Concluding the STS-133 mission, Space Shuttle Discovery touches down at the Shuttle Landing Facility.jpg|[[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']] touches down for the final time at the end of [[STS-133]].
File:Space Shuttle Endeavour landing.jpg|[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|''Endeavour'']] brake chute deploys after touching down
</gallery>
<small>{{commons-inline|bullet=none|Category:Landings of space shuttles|Landings of space Shuttles}}</small>
===Post-landing processing===
{{main|Orbiter Processing Facility}}
[[File:Discovery mission completed q.jpg|thumb|''Discovery'' after landing on Earth for crew disembarkment]]
After landing, the vehicle stayed on the runway for several hours for the orbiter to cool. Teams at the front and rear of the orbiter tested for presence of [[hydrogen]], [[hydrazine]], [[monomethylhydrazine]], [[nitrogen tetroxide]] and [[ammonia]] (fuels and by products of the [[reaction control system|control]] and the orbiter's three [[Auxiliary Power Unit|APUs]]). If hydrogen was detected, an emergency would be declared, the orbiter powered down and teams would evacuate the area. A convoy of 25 specially-designed vehicles and 150 trained engineers and technicians approached the orbiter. Purge and vent lines were attached to remove toxic gasses from fuel lines and the cargo bay about 45–60 minutes after landing. A [[flight surgeon]] boarded the orbiter for initial medical checks of the crew before disembarking. Once the crew left the orbiter, responsibility for the vehicle was handed from the Johnson Space Center back to the Kennedy Space Center<ref name=afterlandingpao>{{cite web|title=From Landing to Launch Orbiter Processing|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/pdf/orbiterprocessing2002.pdf|publisher=NASA Public Affairs Office|accessdate=2011-06-30}}</ref>
If the mission ended at [[Edwards Air Force Base]] in California, [[White Sands Space Harbor]] in New Mexico, or any of the [[List of space shuttle landing runways|runways the orbiter might use in an emergency]], the orbiter was loaded atop the [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]], a modified 747, for transport back to the Kennedy Space Center, landing at the [[Shuttle Landing Facility]]. Once at the Shuttle Landing Facility, the orbiter was then towed {{convert|2|mi}} along a tow-way and access roads normally used by tour busses and KSC employees to the [[Orbiter Processing Facility]] where it began a months-long preparation process for the next mission.<ref name=afterlandingpao/>
===Landing sites===
{{See also|List of space shuttle landing runways}}
NASA preferred Space Shuttle landings to be at [[Kennedy Space Center]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/flyout/landing_sites.html |title=NASA – Roster of Runways Ready to Bring a Shuttle Home |publisher=Nasa.gov |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref> If weather conditions made landing there unfavorable, the Shuttle could delay its landing until conditions are favorable, touch down at Edwards Air Force Base, California, or use one of the multiple alternate landing sites around the world. A landing at any site other than Kennedy Space Center meant that after touchdown the Shuttle must be mated to the [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]] and returned to [[Cape Canaveral]]. Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' ([[STS-3]]) once landed at the [[White Sands Space Harbor]], [[New Mexico]]; this was viewed as a last resort as NASA scientists believe that the sand could potentially damage the Shuttle's exterior.
There were many [[Emergency landing sites|alternative landing sites]] that were never used.<ref>{{cite web |author=Global Security |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/facility/sts-els.htm |title=Space Shuttle Emergency Landing Sites |accessdate=August 3, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=US Northern Command |url=http://www.northcom.mil/News/2009/031309_a.html |title=DOD Support to manned space operations for STS-119 |accessdate=2011-06-30 }}</ref>
===Risk contributors===
[[File:STS-133 docked to ISS.jpg|thumb|right|Discovery at ISS in 2011 (STS-133)]]
An example of technical risk analysis for a STS mission is SPRA iteration 3.1 top risk contributors for STS-133:<ref name="copv">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2010/07/nasa-reviews-copv-for-final-program-flights/ |title=NASA Reviews COPV Reliability Concerns for Final Program Flights |accessdate=December 14, 2010 |publisher=NASASpaceflight.com |author=Chris Gebhardt}}</ref><ref>Hamlin, et al. [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20100005659_2010007106.pdf 2009 Space Shuttle Probabilistic Risk Assessment Overview''] (.pdf). NASA.</ref>
# Micro-Meteoroid Orbital Debris (MMOD) strikes
# Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)-induced or SSME catastrophic failure
# Ascent debris strikes to TPS leading to LOCV on orbit or entry
# Crew error during entry
# RSRM-induced RSRM catastrophic failure (RSRM are the rocket motors of the Solid Rocket Boosters)
# COPV failure (COPV are tanks inside the orbiter that hold gas at high pressure)
An internal NASA risk assessment study (conducted by the Shuttle Program Safety and Mission Assurance Office at [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Johnson Space Center]]) released in late 2010 or early 2011 concluded that the agency had seriously underestimated the level of risk involved in operating the Shuttle. The report assessed that there was a 1 in 9 chance of a catastrophic disaster during the first nine flights of the Shuttle but that safety improvements had later improved the risk ratio to 1 in 100.<ref>''[[Florida Today]]'', "[http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2011/02/gannett-nasa-report-says-shuttle-dangers-underestimated-021311w/ Report says NASA underestimated Shuttle dangers]", ''[[Military Times]]'', February 13, 2011. Retrieved February 15, 2011.</ref>
==Fleet history==
[[File:OV-101 first flight.jpg|thumb|OV-101 ''Enterprise'' takes flight for the first time over [[Dryden Flight Research Facility]], Edwards, California in 1977 as part of the Shuttle program's [[Approach and Landing Tests]] (ALT).]]
[[File:Space Shuttle Atlantis launches from KSC on STS-132 side view.jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']] lifts off from Launch Pad 39A at NASA's [[Kennedy Space Center]] in Florida on the [[STS-132]] mission to the [[International Space Station]] at 2:20 pm EDT on May 14, 2010. This was one of the last scheduled flights for ''Atlantis'' before it was retired.]]
{{Main|List of space shuttle missions}}
Below is a list of major events in the Space Shuttle orbiter fleet.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
|+ '''Space Shuttle major events'''
|-
! Date
! Orbiter
! Major event / remarks
|-
| September 17, 1976
| [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|''Enterprise'']]
| Prototype Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|''Enterprise'']] was rolled out of its assembly facility in Southern California and displayed before a crowd several thousand strong.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wall |first=Mike |url=http://news.yahoo.com/35-years-ago-nasa-unveils-first-space-shuttle-114004743.html |title=35 Years Ago: NASA Unveils First Space Shuttle, 'Enterprise' |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=September 17, 2011 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
|-
| February 18, 1977
| ''Enterprise''
| First flight; Attached to [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]] throughout flight.
|-
| August 12, 1977
| ''Enterprise''
| First free flight; Tailcone on; lakebed landing.
<!--|-
| October 12, 1977
| ''Enterprise''
| Third free flight; First with no tailcone; lakebed landing.-->
|-
| October 26, 1977
| ''Enterprise''
| Final ''Enterprise'' free flight; First landing on Edwards AFB concrete runway.
|-
| April 12, 1981
| [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']]
| First ''Columbia'' flight, first orbital test flight; [[STS-1]]
|-
| November 11, 1982
| ''Columbia''
| First operational flight of the Space Shuttle, first mission to carry four astronauts; [[STS-5]]
|-
| April 4, 1983
| [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']]
| First ''Challenger'' flight; [[STS-6]]
|-
| August 30, 1984
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']]
| First ''Discovery'' flight; [[STS-41-D]]
|-
| October 3, 1985
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|''Atlantis'']]
| First ''Atlantis'' flight; [[STS-51-J]]
|-
| October 30, 1985
| ''Challenger''
| First crew of eight astronauts; [[STS-61-A]]
|-
| January 28, 1986
| ''Challenger''
| [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Disaster starting 73 seconds after launch]]; [[STS-51-L]]; all seven crew members died.
|-
| September 29, 1988
| ''Discovery''
| First post-''Challenger'' mission; [[STS-26]]
|-
| May 4, 1989
| ''Atlantis''
| The first Space Shuttle mission to launch a space probe, [[Magellan probe|Magellan]]; [[STS-30]]
|-
| April 24, 1990
| ''Discovery''
| Launch of the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]; [[STS-31]]
|-
| May 7, 1992
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|''Endeavour'']]
| First ''Endeavour'' flight; [[STS-49]]
|-
| November 19, 1996
| ''Columbia''
| Longest Shuttle mission at 17 days, 15 hours; [[STS-80]]
|-
| December 4, 1998
| ''Endeavour''
| First [[ISS]] mission; [[STS-88]]
|-
| February 1, 2003
| ''Columbia''
| [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Disintegrated during re-entry]]; [[STS-107]]; all seven crew members died.
|-
| July 25, 2005
| ''Discovery''
| First post-''Columbia'' mission; [[STS-114]]
|-
<!-- | April 5, 2010
| ''Discovery''
| Last night launch; [[STS-131]] -->
|-
| February 24, 2011
| ''Discovery''
| Last ''Discovery'' flight; [[STS-133]]
|-
| May 16, 2011
| ''Endeavour''
| Last ''Endeavour'' mission; [[STS-134]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/highlights/schedule.html |title=NASA – NASA's Shuttle and Rocket Launch Schedule |publisher=Nasa.gov |date=July 27, 2010 |accessdate=August 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/jul/HQ_10-157_STS_Launch_Dates.html|title=NASA Updates Shuttle Target Launch Dates For Final Two Flights |accessdate=July 3, 2010 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
|-
| July 8, 2011
| ''Atlantis''
| Last ''Atlantis'' flight and last Space Shuttle flight; [[STS-135]]
|}
Sources: NASA launch manifest,<ref name="manifest">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/iss_manifest.html |title=Consolidated Launch Manifest |accessdate=May 28, 2009 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> NASA Space Shuttle archive<ref name="archive">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/list_main.html |title=Space Shuttle Mission Archives |accessdate=May 28, 2009 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
===Shuttle disasters===
{{Main|Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle Columbia disaster}}
On January 28, 1986, ''Challenger'' disintegrated 73 seconds after launch due to the failure of the right SRB, killing all seven astronauts on board. The disaster was caused by low-temperature impairment of an O-ring, a mission critical seal used between segments of the SRB casing. The failure of a lower O-ring seal allowed hot combustion gases to escape from between the booster sections and burn through the adjacent [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]], causing it to explode.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v1ch3.htm |title= Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Chapter III: The Accident |publisher=History.nasa.gov |date= June 6, 1986 |accessdate= July 4, 2012}}</ref> Repeated warnings from design engineers voicing concerns about the lack of evidence of the O-rings' safety when the temperature was below 53 °F (12 °C) had been ignored by NASA managers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v1ch6.htm |title=Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Chapter VI: An Accident Rooted in History, Chapter VI: An Accident Rooted in History |publisher=History.nasa.gov |date= June 6, 1986 |accessdate= July 17, 2009}}</ref>
On February 1, 2003, ''Columbia'' disintegrated during re-entry, killing its crew of seven, because of damage to the [[Reinforced carbon-carbon|carbon-carbon]] leading edge of the wing caused during launch. Ground control engineers had made three separate requests for high-resolution images taken by the Department of Defense that would have provided an understanding of the extent of the damage, while NASA's chief [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system|thermal protection system]] (TPS) engineer requested that astronauts on board ''Columbia'' be allowed to leave the vehicle to inspect the damage. NASA managers intervened to stop the Department of Defense's assistance and refused the request for the spacewalk,<ref>[http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/space/Columbia%20accident.htm "the Columbia Accident"]. century-of-flight.net</ref> and thus the feasibility of scenarios for astronaut repair or rescue by ''Atlantis'' were not considered by NASA management at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/columbia/caib/PDFS/VOL2/D13.PDF |title=D13 – In-Flight Options |format=PDF |accessdate=July 17, 2009}}</ref>
==Retirement==
{{main|Space Shuttle retirement}}
[[File:Atlantis welcome home ceremony outside the OPF July 22.png|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Atlantis orbiter's final welcome home, 2011.]]
NASA retired the Space Shuttle in 2011, after 30 years of service. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in [[low earth orbit]] in the early-1990s. When the U.S. space station evolved into the [[International Space Station]] project, which suffered from long delays and design changes before it could be completed, the service life of the Space Shuttle was extended several times until 2011 – serving at least 15 years longer than it was originally designed to do. ''Discovery'' was the first of NASA's three remaining operational Space Shuttles to be retired.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/highlights/schedule.html |title=NASA – NASA's Shuttle and Rocket Launch Schedule |publisher=Nasa.gov | accessdate= July 17, 2009 }}</ref>
The final Space Shuttle mission was originally scheduled for late 2010, but the program was later extended to July 2011 when Michael Suffredini of the ISS program said that one additional trip was needed in 2011 to deliver parts to the International Space Station.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Pike |url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/news/2010/space-100506-rianovosti01.htm |title=Space Shuttle may continue through next year – Roscosmos |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |date=May 13, 2010 |accessdate=August 7, 2010}}</ref> The Shuttle's final mission consisted of just four astronauts—Christopher Ferguson (Commander), Douglas Hurley (Pilot), Sandra Magnus (Mission Specialist 1), and Rex Walheim (Mission Specialist 2);<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/07/03/rare-four-member-crew-to-fly-final-shuttle/?test=faces "Rare Four-Member Crew to Fly Final Shuttle"]. FoxNews.com, July 3, 2011. Retrieved July 4, 2011</ref> they conducted the 135th and last space Shuttle mission on board ''Atlantis'', which launched on July 8, 2011 and landed safely at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011 at 5:57 AM EDT (09:57 UTC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/index.html |title=NASA – Launch and Landing|publisher=NASA|accessdate=July 23, 2011}}</ref>
===Distribution of orbiters and other hardware===
[[File:Space Shuttle Program Commemorative Patch.png|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Space Shuttle Program]] commemorative patch]]
NASA announced it would transfer space-worthy orbiters to education institutions or museums at the conclusion of the Space Shuttle program. Each museum or institution is responsible for covering the {{US$|28.8 million}} cost of preparing and transporting each vehicle for display. Twenty museums from across the country submitted proposals for receiving one of the retired orbiters.<ref name="retired shuttle display">{{cite news|title=Photo Gallery: How to display a retired space shuttle |url=http://collectspace.com/news/news-080210b.html| newspaper= Collect Space|date=November 1, 2010| accessdate=July 11, 2011}}</ref> NASA also made [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system]] tiles available to schools and universities for less than US$25 each.<ref name=tiles>{{cite news| url=http://www.cfnews13.com/article/news/2010/december/178743/NASA-offers-space-shuttle-tiles-to-school-and-universities | title=NASA offers space shuttle tiles to school and universities |work=Channel 13 News |date=December 1, 2010 | accessdate=July 11, 2011}}</ref> About 7,000 tiles were available on a [[first-come, first-served]] basis, limited to one per institution.<ref name=tiles/>
On April 12, 2011, NASA announced selection of locations for the remaining Shuttle orbiters:<ref name=NASA_New_Homes_for_Orbiters>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/shuttle_station/features/shuttle_homes.html |title=NASA Announces New Homes for Space Shuttle Orbiters After Retirement |author=Jason Townsend |date=April 12, 2011 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=April 12, 2011}}</ref><ref name="intrepid">{{cite news |last=McGeehan|first=Patrick|title=Space Shuttle to Land in Manhattan|url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/12/space-shuttle-to-land-in-manhattan/|accessdate=April 12, 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times|date=April 12, 2011| accessdate=July 11, 2011}}</ref>
* ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'' will be on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]], near [[Cape Canaveral]], Florida. It was delivered to the Visitor Complex on November 2, 2012.
* ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'' was delivered to the [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center|Udvar-Hazy Center]] of the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[National Air and Space Museum]] in [[Chantilly, Virginia]], near Washington, D.C. on April 19, 2012. On April 17, 2012, Discovery was flown atop a 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft escorted by a NASA T-38 Talon chase aircraft in a final farewell flight. The 747 and Discovery flew over Washington, D.C. and the metropolitan area around 10 am and arrived at Dulles around 11 am. The flyover and landing were widely covered on national news media.
[[File:Space Shuttle Endeavor Touchdown at LAX.JPG|thumb|''Endeavour'' at Los Angeles International Airport]]
* ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' was delivered to the [[California Science Center]] in Los Angeles, California on October 14, 2012. It arrived at Los Angeles International Airport on September 21, 2012, concluding a two-day, cross country journey atop the [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]] after stops at Ellington Field in Houston, Biggs Army Airfield in El Paso and the Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base in California.
* ''[[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Enterprise]]'' (atmospheric test orbiter), was on display at the National Air and Space Museum's Udvar-Hazy Center but was moved to New York City's [[Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum]] in mid-2012.<ref name="shuttle_sale" />
* ''[[Space Shuttle Explorer|Explorer]]'', a full-scale orbiter mockup with interior access, formerly on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, was delivered by barge to the [[Johnson Space Center]] in Houston, Texas for display at [[Space Center Houston]].
Flight and mid-deck training hardware will be taken from the [[Johnson Space Center]] and will go to the National Air and Space Museum and the [[National Museum of the U.S. Air Force]]. The full fuselage mockup, which includes the payload bay and aft section but no wings, is to go to the [[Museum of Flight]] in Seattle. Mission Simulation and Training Facility's fixed simulator will go to the [[Adler Planetarium]] in Chicago, and the motion simulator will go to the [[Texas A&M]] Aerospace Engineering Department in College Station, Texas. Other simulators used in Shuttle astronaut training will go to the [[Wings of Dreams Aviation Museum]] in Starke, Florida and the [[Virginia Air and Space Center]] in Hampton, Virginia.<ref name="retired shuttle display" />
In August 2011, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] (OIG) published a "Review of NASA's Selection of Display Locations for the Space Shuttle Orbiters"; the review had four main findings:<ref name="oigreview">{{Cite report |type= Special Report |format= PDF |date= August 25, 2011 |title= Review of NASA's Selection of Display Locations for the Space Shuttle Orbiters |url= http://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY11/Review_NASAs_Selection_Display_Locations.pdf |publisher= [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] |pages= 26 |accessdate= 2011-10-05}}</ref> <!-- this references has significant details that should be added -->
*"NASA's decisions regarding Orbiter placement were the result of an Agency-created process that emphasized above all other considerations locating the Orbiters in places where the most people would have the opportunity to view them";
*"the Team made several errors during its evaluation process, including one that would have resulted in a numerical 'tie' among the Intrepid, the Kennedy Visitor Complex, and the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force (Air Force Museum) in Dayton, Ohio";
*there is "no evidence that the Team’s recommendation or the Administrator's decision were tainted by political influence or any other improper consideration";
*"some of the choices NASA made during the selection process – specifically, its decision to manage aspects of the selection as if it were a competitive procurement and to delay announcement of its placement decisions until April 2011 (more than 2 years after it first solicited information from interested entities)—may intensify challenges to the Agency and the selectees as they work to complete the process of placing the Orbiters in their new homes."
The NASA OIG had three recommendations, saying NASA should:<ref name="oigreview"/>
*"expeditiously review recipients' financial, logistical, and curatorial display plans to ensure they are feasible and consistent with the Agency's educational goals and processing and delivery schedules";
*"ensure that recipient payments are closely coordinated with processing schedules, do not impede NASA's ability to efficiently prepare the Orbiters for museum display, and provide sufficient funds in advance of the work to be performed; and"
*"work closely with the recipient organizations to minimize the possibility of delays in the delivery schedule that could increase the Agency's costs or impact other NASA missions and priorities."
In September 2011, the CEO and two board members of Seattle's [[Museum of Flight]] met with NASA Administrator [[Charles Bolden]], pointing out "significant errors in deciding where to put its four retiring Space Shuttles"; the errors alleged include inaccurate information on [[Museum of Flight]]'s attendance and international visitor statistics, as well as the readiness of the [[Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum]]'s exhibit site.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2016405754_shuttle05m.html |title= Seattle still dreams of landing a shuttle | date= October 4, 2011 | publisher= The Seattle Times |first= Jack |last= Broom | accessdate= 2011-10-05}}</ref>
==Space Shuttle successors and legacy==
{{Main|Space Shuttle retirement}}
Until another U.S. manned spacecraft is ready, crews will travel to and from the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) exclusively aboard the Russian [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] spacecraft.
A planned successor to STS was the "Shuttle II" during the 1980s and 1990s, and later the Constellation program during the 2004–2010 period. CSTS was a proposal to continue to operate STS commercially, after NASA.<ref name=coppinger>{{cite web|last=Coppinger |first=Rob |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41397955/ns/technology_and_science-space/ |author=Rob Coppinger |title=NASA weighs plan to keep Space Shuttle until 2017 |publisher=MSNBC |date=February 3, 2011 |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref> In September 2011, [[NASA]] announced the selection of the design for the new [[Space Launch System]] that is planned to launch the [[Orion spacecraft]] and other hardware to missions beyond low earth-orbit.<ref name="New Heavy-lift Rocket Will Take Humans Far Beyond Earth">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/sep/HQ_11-301_SLS_Decision.html|title=NASA Announces Design For New Deep Space Exploration System|publisher=NASA|first=NASA|last=Release:11-301|date=September 14, 2011|accessdate=September 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="NASA Briefing on Deep Space Launch System">{{cite web|url=http://www.c-span.org/Events/Press-Conference-on-the-Future-of-NASA-Space-Program/10737424158/|title=Press Conference on the Future of NASA Space Program|publisher=C-Span VideoLibrary|date=September 14, 2011|accessdate=September 14, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Space & Cosmos">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/science/space/15nasa.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1|title=NASA Unveils New Rocket Design|work=The New York Times |date=September 14, 2011|accessdate=September 14, 2011}}</ref>
The [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated unmanned cargo vehicles to service the ISS.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=NASA |date=August 18, 2006 |title=NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06295_COTS_phase_1.html |accessdate=2006-11-21}}</ref> These vehicles, the [[SpaceX]] [[Dragon (spacecraft)|Dragon]] and the [[Orbital Sciences]]' [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]], are expected to become operational in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/10/iss-partners-welcome-spacex-orbital-busy-2012/|title=ISS partners prepare to welcome SpaceX and Orbital in a busy 2012|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=October 6, 2011|publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com (Not affiliated with NASA)|accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> The [[Commercial Crew Development]] (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating commercially operated manned spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, to stay docked for 180 days and then return them back to Earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacenews.com/venture_space/100201-biggest-ccdev-award-goes-sierra-nevada.html|title=Biggest CCDev Award Goes to Sierra Nevada|last=Berger|first=Brian|date=February 1, 2011|publisher=Imaginova Corp.|accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref> These spacecraft are expected to become operational in the mid-2010s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/12119-nasa-private-space-taxis-commercial-spaceships.html|title=NASA's Plan for Private Space Taxis Takes Step Forward|date=June 30, 2011|publisher=Space.com|accessdate=December 13, 2011}}</ref>
==In culture==
[[File:S123 Linnehan through the window.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Looking out a rear cabin window of the Shuttle in orbit]]
<!--Please don't list every single TV show/movie the Shuttle is mentioned on or appears in. This is not meant to be a comprehensive list! Unless you have an example that is much, much, much better than those already here, don't insert it. We could use a novel or two, and a videogame, but the Shuttle should be an important part of the story, not just a casual mention. (''[[The Core]]'''s opening scene is a casual mention, for example.-->
Space Shuttles have been features of fiction and nonfiction, from movies for kids to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979 [[James Bond]] film, ''[[Moonraker (film)|Moonraker]]'', the 1982 [[Activision]] videogame ''Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space'' (1982) and [[G. Harry Stine]]'s 1981 novel ''[[Shuttle Down]]''. In the 1986 film ''[[SpaceCamp]]'', ''Atlantis'' accidentally launched into space with a group of [[U.S. Space Camp]] participants as its crew. The 1998 film ''[[Armageddon (1998 film)|Armageddon]]'' portrayed a combined crew of offshore oil rig workers and US military staff who pilot two modified Shuttles to avert the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000 [[Clint Eastwood]] adventure film ''[[Space Cowboys]]''. In the 2003 film ''The Core,'' the ''Endeavour'''s landing is disrupted by the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004 Bollywood movie ''[[Swades]]'', where a Space Shuttle was used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was filmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following the [[Columbia disaster]] that had taken the life of Indian-American astronaut [[Kalpana Chawla|KC Chawla]]. On television, the 1996 drama ''[[The Cape (1996 TV series)|The Cape]]'' portrayed the lives of a group of NASA astronauts as they prepared for and flew Shuttle missions. ''[[Odyssey 5]]'' was a short lived sci-fi series that featured the crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth.
<!--Please don't list every single TV show/movie the shuttle is mentioned on or appears in. This is not meant to be a comprehensive list! Unless you have an example that is much, much, much better than those already here, don't insert it. We could use a novel or two, and a videogame, but the Shuttle should be an important part of the story, not just a casual mention. ''[[The Core]]'''s opening scene is a casual mention, for example. Also in the X file episode ''[[Space]]'' -->
The Space Shuttle has also been the subject of toys and models; for example, a large [[Lego]] Space Shuttle model was constructed by visitors at Kennedy Space Center,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3xBtR_TJZ8UC&q=Lego+Space+Shuttle&dq=Lego+Space+Shuttle&hl=en&ei=DtIHTc7qAcP68AbxpbDgDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCA Cherie D. Abbey, Kevin Hillstrom – "Biography Today Annual Cumulation 2004: Profiles Of People Of ...: Volume 13; Volume 2004" (2004)], Page 55, Quote:"she went to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, where she helped visitors build the world's largest Lego Space Shuttle"</ref> and smaller models have been sold commercially as a standard "LegoLand" set. A 1984 pinball machine "Space Shuttle" was produced by Williams and features a plastic Space Shuttle mockup amongst other artwork of astronauts on the playfield.
===U.S. postage commemorations===
{{Main|U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps#Space Shuttle Issues}}
The U.S. Postal Service has released several postage issues that depict the Space Shuttle. The first such stamps were issued in 1981, and are on display at the [[National Postal Museum]].<ref>[http://www.arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2039305 Space Achievement Issue]. Smithsonian, [[National Postal Museum]]</ref>
==See also==
{{div col}}
===Space Shuttle related===
*[[Chrysler SERV]]
*[[Criticism of the Space Shuttle program]]
*[[Getaway Special]]
*[[List of human spaceflights]]
*[[List of Space Shuttle crews]]
*[[NASA TV]], coverage of launches and missions
*[[Orbiter Processing Facility]]
*[[Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle]]
*[[Space Shuttle orbiter]]
*[[Shuttle Training Aircraft]]
*[[Space accidents and incidents]]
*[[HL-20 Personnel Launch System]]
===Physics===
*[[Atmospheric reentry]]
*[[Lifting body]]
*[[Reusable launch system]]
*[[Single-stage-to-orbit]]
===Similar spacecraft===
*[[Buran program|Buran]], Soviet Space shuttle program (1974–1992)
*[[Comparison of orbital launchers families]]
*[[Comparison of orbital launch systems]]
*DIRECT, a vehicle proposed as an alternative for [[Constellation program]]
*[[EADS Phoenix]]
*[[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] (1975–1992)
*[[HOPE-X]]
*[[HOTOL]] (cancelled)
*[[Kliper]]
*[[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft
*[[Skylon (spacecraft)|Skylon]]
*[[X-20 Dynasoar]] (1957–1963)
*[[Lockheed Martin X-33|X-33]] of Lockheed Martin (1995–2001)
{{div col end}}
==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
[[File:Shuttle Patch.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|Space Shuttle program insignia]]
;Further reading
*[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/technology/sts-newsref/stsref-toc.html NSTS 1988 Reference manual]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/space-shuttle.htm How The Space Shuttle Works]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19810022734_1981022734.pdf NASA Space Shuttle News Reference – 1981 (PDF document)]
*[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/orbiters.html Orbiter Vehicles]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/lecture-notes/ Lecture Series on the space shuttle] from [[MIT OpenCourseWare]]
;NASA
*[http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/the_shuttle/ The Space Shuttle Era: 1981–2011; interactive multimedia on the space shuttle orbiters]
*[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/ NASA Human Spaceflight – Shuttle]: Current status of shuttle missions
*Official NASA [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/tracking/ Human Space Flight Orbital Tracking] system
*[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/shuttle/index.html NASA Shuttle Gallery: Newer images, audio, and video of the space shuttle program]
*[http://nix.larc.nasa.gov/search;?b=SC000249 Older images of the space shuttle program]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/series95.html NASA History Series Publications] (many of which are on-line)
;Non-NASA
*[http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/05/first_of_the_last_space_shuttl.html Atlantis photo essay] From Boston.com. (May 14, 2010)
*[http://shuttlesource.com/ Video of current and historical missions (STS-1 thru Current)]
*[news:sci.space.shuttle Space Shuttle Newsgroup – sci.space.shuttle]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/facility/sts-els.htm List of all Shuttle Landing Sites] and a [http://www.srh.noaa.gov/smg/lsitegif.htm Map of Landing Sites]
*[http://chandra.harvard.edu/launch/status/weather_criteria2.html Weather criteria for shuttle launch]
*[http://www.drafts.de/space_shuttle.htm Different details and perspectives from the orbiter (Gallery drafts.de)] (ger.)
*[http://pages.total.net/~hrothgar/museum/Compass/ GRiD Compass History at Hrothgar's Cool Old Junk Page]
*[http://www.aooch.com/science-and-technology/last-flight-of-space-shuttle-endeavour Last Space Shuttle Endeavour Pictures]
*[http://www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/Shuttle-Time-Lapse.html time lapse of orbiter flow from processing, to stacking, to launch]
*[http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/06/writestuff.html They Write the Right Stuff] : Software development for the Space Shuttle
*[http://www.eearth.tv/?p=1413 Final Launch Image Gallery] Photos of STS-135 taking off and reaching orbit
*[http://www.aooch.com/video-gallery/launch-video-of-space-shuttle-endeavour-sts-134 Launch Video of Last Space Shuttle Endeavour]
*{{Guardiantopic|science/space-shuttle}}
*[http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/science/topics/space_shuttle/index.html Space Shuttle] collected news and commentary at ''[[The New York Times]]''
*{{Worldcat subject|lccn-n81-148041|the Space Shuttle Program (U.S.)}}
*Swaby, Rachel. [http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/06/st_spaceshuttle_timeline "The Space Shuttle’s Impact on Pop Culture"], ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'', June 28, 2011
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.1157922|name="Space Shuttle: A Remarkable Flying Machine (1981)"}}
==References==
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