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အပိုလိုစီမံကိန်း: တည်းဖြတ်မှု မူကွဲများ

ရာဇဝင်ကို အပြန်အလှန်အားဖြင့် ဝင်ကြည့်ရန်
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[[File:Apollo program insignia.png|thumb|alt=Apollo program insignia]]
[[File:Aldrin Apollo 11.jpg|thumb|၁၉၆၉၊ ဇူလိုင်တွင် လပေါ်ဒုတိယမြောက်ခြေချသူ အပိုလို ၁၁ ယာဉ်အဖွဲ့သား Buzz Aldrin|alt=Astronaut Buzz Aldrin stands on the Moon]]
'''အပိုလိုစီမံကိန်း'''သည် အမေရိကန်ပြည်ထောင်စု[[နာဆာ|အမျိုးသားလေကြောင်းနှင့်အာကာသစီမံခန့်ခွဲရေး]]၏ တတိယမြောက် အရပ်ဖက် လူစီးအာကာသယာဉ်စီမံကိန်းဖြစ်သည်။ First conceived during the [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower]] as a three-man spacecraft to follow the one-man [[Project Mercury]] which put the first Americans in space, Apollo was later dedicated to [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]]'s national goal of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" by the end of the 1960s, which he proposed in a May 25, 1961 address to [[US congress|Congress]]. Project Mercury was followed by the two-man [[Project Gemini]] (1962–66). The first manned flight of Apollo was in 1968 and it succeeded in landing the [[Moonwalkers|first humans on Earth's Moon]] in 1969 through 1972.
 
[[Category:အာကာသ]]
Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the [[Apollo 11]] mission when astronauts [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] landed their [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) on the Moon on July 20, 1969 and walked on its surface while [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] remained in [[lunar orbit]] in the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command spacecraft]], and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed [[astronaut]]s on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, 12 men walked on the Moon.
 
အပိုလိုစီမံကိန်းသည် ၁၉၆၁ မှ ၁၉၇၂ ထိကြာမြင့်ခဲ့သည်။ pollo ran from 1961 to 1972, and was supported by the two-man [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] program which ran concurrently with it from 1962 to 1966. Gemini missions developed some of the space travel techniques that were necessary for the success of the Apollo missions. Apollo used [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family rockets]] as launch vehicles. Apollo / Saturn vehicles were also used for an [[Apollo Applications program]] which consisted of three [[Skylab|Skylab space station]] missions in 1973–74.
 
Apollo succeeded despite the major setback of a 1967 [[Apollo 1]] cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a pre-launch test. Six manned landings on the Moon were achieved. A seventh landing mission, the 1970 [[Apollo 13]] flight, failed in transit to the Moon when an oxygen tank explosion disabled the command spacecraft's propulsion and life support, forcing the crew to use the Lunar Module as a "lifeboat" for these functions to return to Earth safely.
 
Apollo set several major [[List of space exploration milestones, 1957–1969|human spaceflight milestones]]. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond [[low Earth orbit]]; [[Apollo 8]] was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final [[Apollo 17]] mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond [[low Earth orbit]]. The program returned {{convert|842|lb|kg}} of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of [[lunar geology]]. The program laid the foundation for NASA's current human spaceflight capability, and funded construction of its [[Johnson Space Center]] and [[Kennedy Space Center]]. Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including [[avionics]], telecommunications, and computers.
 
==နောက်ခံ==
{{See also|Space Race}}
 
The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration, as a follow-up to America's Mercury program. While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, the Apollo spacecraft was to be able to carry three astronauts on a circumlunar flight and eventually to a lunar landing. The program was named after the [[Apollo|Greek god of light, music, and the sun]] by NASA manager [[Abe Silverstein]], who later said that "I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby."<ref>Murray and Cox, ''Apollo'', p. 55.</ref> Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/apollo_press_release.html |title=NASA - 1969 Apollo 11 News Release |publisher=Nasa.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-21}}</ref> While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for the program was far from certain given Eisenhower's ambivalent attitude to manned spaceflight.<ref>Murray and Cox, ''Apollo'', p. 60.</ref>
 
[[File:Kennedy Giving Historic Speech to Congress - GPN-2000-001658.jpg|thumb|right|President Kennedy delivers his proposal to put a man on the Moon before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961|alt=President John F. Kennedy addresses a joint session of Congress, with Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and House Speaker Sam Rayburn seated behind him]]
 
In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the [[Soviet Union]] in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Using space exploration as a symbol of national prestige, he warned of a "[[missile gap]]" between the two nations, pledging to make the U.S. not "first but, first and, first if, but first period."<ref>Beschloss, 'Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon,' in Launius and McCurdy, eds., ''Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership''.</ref> Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing.<ref>Sidey, ''John F. Kennedy'', pp. 117–118.</ref> When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator [[James E. Webb]] requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.<ref>Beschloss, 'Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon', p. 55.</ref>
 
၁၉၆၁၊ ဧပြီလတွင် ဆိုဗီယက်အာကာသသူရဲကောင်း ယူရီဂါဂါရင်သည် ပထမဆုံးအာကာသခရီးသည်ဖြစ်လာခဲ့သည်။ အမေရိကန်တို့အား နည်းပညာပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာတွင်ဆိုဗီယက်တို့နောက်တွင်ကျန်ခဲ့မည်ကို ကြောက်ရွံ့စေခဲ့သည်။ At a meeting of the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up.<ref>"Discussion of Soviet Man-in-Space Shot," Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 87th Congress, First Session, April 13, 1961.</ref> Kennedy, however, was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets.<ref>Sidey, ''John F. Kennedy'', p. 114</ref>
 
On April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up.<ref>Kennedy to Johnson, [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo1.pdf "Memorandum for Vice President,"] April 20, 1961.</ref> Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership."<ref name="lbjmemo">Johnson to Kennedy, [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo2.pdf "Evaluation of Space Program,"] April 28, 1961.</ref> His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first.<ref name="lbjmemo"/>
 
On May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US manned spaceflight [[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]], Kennedy proposed the Apollo program to Congress in a special address to a joint session:
{{quote|I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.<ref name="Special Message">[[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy, John F]].[http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs"]. jfklibrary.org, May 25, 1961.</ref>}}
 
==NASA expansion==
At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a month earlier—and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met.<ref>Murray and Cox, ''Apollo'', pp. 16–17</ref> Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of effort.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sietzen |first=Frank |title=Soviets Planned to Accept JFK’s Joint Lunar Mission Offer |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/russia-97h.html |work="SpaceCast News Service" Washington DC |accessdate=October 2, 1997}}</ref>
 
Landing men on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($24 billion), ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Apollo.html NASA Langley Research Center's Contributions to the Apollo Program]. NASA Langley Research Center.</ref>
 
===Manned Spacecraft Center===
{{Main|Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center}}
 
It became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of [[Robert Gilruth]]'s [[Space Task Group]], which had been directing the nation's manned space program from NASA's [[Langley Research Center]]. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas on land donated by [[Rice University]], and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961.<ref name="TNO 12">{{cite book
|last1 = Swenson Jr. |first1 = Loyd S.
|first2 = James M. |last2 = Grimwood
|first3 = Charles C. |last3 = Alexander
|title = This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|series = Special Publication
|volume = 4201
|year = 1989
|chapter = Chapter 12.3: Space Task Group Gets a New Home and Name
|chapterurl = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch12-3.htm
|url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm
|isbn = }}</ref> It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]] launch facilities in Florida, so a new [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Mission Control Center]] would be included in the MSC.
 
[[File:President Kennedy speech on the space effort at Rice University, September 12, 1962.ogg|thumb|left|thumbtime=17:32|President Kennedy speaks at Rice University (17 min, 47 sec)]]
In September 1962, by which time two [[Project Mercury]] astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:
 
{{quote|"But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? ... <br>
We choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills; because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win ... ."|<ref name="Rice Speech">[[John F. Kennedy]], [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03SpaceEffort09121962.htm "Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort"]</ref>}}
 
The MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed in honor of Lyndon Johnson by federal law, soon after his death in 1973.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=4109#axzz1RbWN5hpf|title=50 – Statement About Signing a Bill Designating the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas, as the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|first=Richard M.|last=Nixon|date=February 19, 1973|accessdate=July 9, 2011}}</ref>
{{clear}}
 
===လွှတ်တင်ရေးစခန်===
{{Main|Kennedy Space Center}}
 
It also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: [[LC-34]] and [[LC-37]]. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the manned lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at [[Merritt Island]]. The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by [[Kurt H. Debus]], a member of Dr. [[Wernher von Braun]]'s original [[V-2 rocket]] engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director.<ref name=NASA2>{{cite web |title=Dr. Kurt H. Debus |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/about/biographies/debus.html |date=February 1987 |work=Biographies |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=2008-10-07}}</ref> Construction began in November 1962. Upon Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963 to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.<ref>{{cite web |title= The National Archives, Lyndon B. Johnson Executive Order 11129 |url= http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1963-johnson.html |date= |accessdate= April 26, 2010}}</ref>
 
The LOC included [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Launch Complex 39]], a [[Launch Control Center]], and a 130 million cubic foot (3.7 million cubic meter) [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] in which the space vehicle (launch vehicle and spacecraft) would be assembled on a [[Mobile Launcher Platform]] and then moved by a [[Crawler-transporter|transporter]] to one of several launch pads. Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated A and B, were completed in October 1965. The LOC also included an [[Operations and Checkout Building]] (OCB), to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two [[vacuum chamber]]s capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to {{convert|250000|ft|km}}, which is nearly a vacuum.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kscpartnerships.ksc.nasa.gov/techCap/altitude.htm |title=KSC Technical Capabilities: O&C Altitude Chambers |work=NASA.gov |first=Kay |last=Craig |date=2011-06-14 |accessdate=2011-07-29}}</ref><ref>[http://www.luizmonteiro.com/StdAtm.aspx Complete ISA calculator (1976 model)]</ref>
 
===Organization===
Administrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited Dr. [[George Mueller (NASA)|George E. Mueller]] for a high management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later Deputy Administrator) [[Robert Seamans]] to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF).<ref name="SecretOfApollo">Johnson S B (2002), "The Secret of Apollo". Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6898-X.</ref> On July 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator [[D. Brainard Holmes]] on his retirement effective September 1. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] (von Braun), and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) effectively reported to Mueller.<ref>{{Citation
|last = Bilstein
|first = Roger E.
|author-link =
|title = Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles
|place = Washington D.C.
|publisher = NASA History Office
|series =
|volume = SP-4206
|origyear =
|year = 1996
|month=
|edition =
|chapter = Appendix G: NASA Organization Chart, November 1963
|chapterurl = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/p443.htm
|page = 443
|url =
|doi =
|id =
|isbn =
|mr =
|zbl =
|jfm = }}</ref>
 
Based on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high-ranking officers in the [[US Air Force]], so he got Webb's permission to recruit General [[Samuel C. Phillips]], who gained a reputation for his effective management of the [[LGM-30 Minuteman|Minuteman]] program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips' superior officer [[Bernard Schriever]] agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the first manned landing in July 1969, after which he returned to Air Force duty.<ref>{{Cite news
|last = Narvaez
|first = Alfonso A.
|coauthors =
|title = Samuel C. Phillips, Who Directed Apollo Lunar Landing, Dies at 68
|newspaper = The New York Times
|location =
|pages =
|language =
|publisher =
|date = February 1, 1990
|url = http://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/01/obituaries/samuel-c-phillips-who-directed-apollo-lunar-landing-dies-at-68.html?pagewanted=1
|accessdate = April 14, 2010}}</ref>
<!----This probably completes this section, the intent of which is to keep the narrative flow of Webb's big 1963 reorganization. These remainders should be highlighted, probably as appropriate in later sections.
* Shea
* Christopher Kraft
* Gene Kranz
* Deke Slayton
* Rocco Petrone
---->
 
==Choosing a mission mode==
 
[[File:John Houbolt and LOR2.jpg|right|thumb|John Houbolt explaining the LOR concept]]
Once Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:
* '''[[Direct Ascent]]:''' A spacecraft would travel directly to the Moon as a unit, land, and return leaving its landing stage on the Moon. This plan would have required a more powerful launch vehicle, the planned [[Nova (rocket)|Nova rocket]].
* '''[[Earth Orbit Rendezvous]] (EOR):''' Multiple rockets (up to 15 in some plans) would be launched, carrying various parts of a Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for [[translunar injection]]. These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit.
* '''[[Lunar Orbit Rendezvous]] (LOR):''' One [[Saturn V]] would launch a spacecraft that was composed of modular parts. A [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command module]] would remain in orbit around the Moon, while a [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar excursion module]] would descend to the Moon, return to dock with the command ship, and then be discarded. In contrast with the other plans, LOR required only a small part of the spacecraft to land on the Moon, thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from the Moon's surface for the return trip.
* '''Lunar Surface Rendezvous:''' Two spacecraft would be launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the manned vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to the manned vehicle.
 
{{See also|Moon landing}}
[[File:Apollo Direct Ascent.png|thumb|left|Early Apollo configuration for Direct Ascent and Earth Orbit Rendezvous, 1961]]
 
In early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that a rendezvous —let alone a docking— neither of which had been attempted even in [[Earth orbit]], would be extremely difficult in [[lunar orbit]]. However, dissenters including [[John Houbolt]] at [[Langley Research Center]] emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator [[Robert Seamans]]; while acknowledging that he spoke "somewhat as a voice in the wilderness," Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question.<ref>Brooks, Grimwood and Swenson, ''Chariots for Apollo'', p. 71.</ref>
 
Seamans' establishment of the Golovin committee in July 1961 represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision.<ref name="hansen21">Hansen, ''Enchanted Rendezvous'', p 21</ref> While the ad-hoc committee was intended to provide a recommendation on the boosters to be used in the Apollo program, it recognized that the mode decision was an important part of this question. The committee recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode, but its consideration of LOR —as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work— played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR.<ref name="hansen24">Hansen, ''Enchanted Rendezvous'', p 24</ref> The engineers at [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by [[Wernher von Braun]] at a briefing in June 1962. NASA's formal decision in favor of LOR was announced on July 11, 1962. Space historian James Hansen concludes that:
:''Without NASA's adoption of this stubbornly held minority opinion in 1962, the United States may still have reached the Moon, but almost certainly it would not have been accomplished by the end of the 1960s, President Kennedy's target date.''<ref>Hansen, ''Enchanted Rendezvous'', p. 27.</ref>
 
The LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a "life boat" in the event of a failure of the command ship. This happened on [[Apollo 13]] when an oxygen tank failure left the command ship without electrical power. The Lunar Module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely.<ref name="KSC-Apollo_13">{{cite web
|last = Dumolin
|first = Jim
|authorlink =
|coauthors =
|title = NASA Apollo Mission Apollo-13
|work = NASA Historical Archive for Manned Missions
|publisher = Kennedy Space Center
|date = June 29, 2001
|url = http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-13/apollo-13.html
|doi =
|accessdate = September 12, 2012 }}</ref>
 
==အာကာသယာဉ်==
{{Main|Apollo spacecraft}}
 
Preliminary design studies of Apollo spacecraft began in 1960 as a three-man command module supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized for use in various possible missions, such as: shuttle service to a [[space station]], [[circumlunar trajectory|circumlunar flight]], or return to Earth from a lunar landing. Once the Moon landing goal became official, detailed design began of the ''Command/Service Module'' (CSM), in which the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip. The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM's role to a translunar ferry used to transport the crew and a new spacecraft, the ''Lunar Excursion Module'' (LEM, later shortened to ''Lunar Module'', LM), which would take two men to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM.<ref name="SummaryReport" />
 
===Command/Service Module===
{{Main|Apollo Command/Service Module}}
[[File:Apollo CSM lunar orbit.jpg|thumb|left|Apollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit|alt=The cone-shaped Command Module, attached to the cylindrical Service Module, orbits the Moon with a panel removed, exposing the Scientific Instrument Module]]
 
The [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Command Module (CM)|Command Module]] (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered with an [[ablative heat shield]], and had its own [[reaction control system]] (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its [[atmospheric entry]] path. Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to splashdown. The module was {{convert|11.42|ft|m}} tall, {{convert|12.83|ft|m}} in diameter, and weighed approximately {{convert|12250|lb|kg}}.<ref name="ABTN_LV2"/>
 
A cylindrical [[Apollo service module|Service Module]] (SM) supported the Command Module, with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with [[liquid hydrogen]] and [[liquid oxygen]] reactants. A high-gain [[S-band]] antenna was used for long-distance communications on the lunar flights. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. The Service Module was discarded just before re-entry. The module was {{convert|24.6|ft|m}} long and {{convert|12.83|ft|m}} in diameter. The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately {{convert|51300|lb|kg}} fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over {{convert|54000|lb|kg}}.<ref name="ABTN_LV2"/>
 
[[North American Aviation]] won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off of the Moon, and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight.<ref>{{Cite book
|last = Wilford
|first = John
|authorlink = John Noble Wilford
|title = We Reach the Moon; the New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure
|publisher = Bantam Paperbacks
|location = New York
|year = 1969
|page = 167
|isbn = }}</ref> Also, there was no provision for docking with the Lunar Module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development.<ref name="SummaryReport">{{cite book
|last =
|first =
|authorlink =
|coauthors = Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
|title = Apollo Program Summary Report
|publisher = NASA
|series =
|volume = JSC-09423
|edition =
|date = April, 1975
|location = Houston, TX
|pages = 4–12
|language =
|url = http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/Apollopt2-2.pdf
|doi =
|id =
|isbn =
|mr =
|zbl =
|jfm = }}</ref>
 
===Lunar Module===
{{Main|Apollo Lunar Module}}
[[File:Apollo16LM.jpg|thumb|180px|Apollo 16 LM on the Moon]]
 
The [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the Command Module. Not designed to fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations, and was of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The initial LM model weighed approximately {{convert|33300|lb|kg}}, and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours. An Extended Lunar Module weighed over {{convert|36200|lb|kg}}, and allowed surface stays of over 3 days.<ref name="ABTN_LV2">{{cite book
|last = Orloff
|first = Richard W.
|title = Apollo By the Numbers: A Statistical Reference
|publisher = NASA
|series = SP
|volume = 4029
|year = 2004
|location =
|pages =
|url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-12_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm
|isbn =
}}</ref>
 
The contract for design and construction of the Lunar Module was awarded to [[Grumman|Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation]], and the project was overseen by [[Tom Kelly (engineer)|Tom Kelly]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/27/nyregion/t-j-kelly-72-dies-father-of-lunar-module.html T. J. Kelly, 72, Dies; Father of Lunar Module, The New York Times]</ref>
 
==Launch vehicles==
[[Image:Saturnsandlittlejoe2.gif|thumb|right|300px|Four Apollo rocket assemblies, drawn to scale: Little Joe II, Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V.]]
Before the Apollo program began, [[Wernher von Braun]] and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles, the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn series]], and the even larger [[Nova (rocket)|Nova]] series. In the midst of these plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA, and made Director of the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] (MSFC). The initial direct ascent plan to send the three-man Apollo Command/Service Module directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large descent rocket stage, would require a Nova-class launcher, with a lunar payload capability of over {{convert|180000|lb|kg|abbr=out}}.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Bilstein
| first = Roger E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Stages to Saturn
| publisher = NASA
| series =
| volume = SP-4206
| edition =
| date =
| location =
| page = 50
| language =
| chapter = Chapter 2. Aerospace Alphabet: ABMA, ARPA, MSFC
| chapterurl = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch2.htm
| url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/sp4206.htm
| doi =
| id =
| isbn =
| mr =
| zbl =
| jfm = }}
</ref> However, the June 11, 1962 decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the [[Saturn V]] to replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded to develop the [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn rocket family]] for Apollo.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Bilstein
| first = Roger E.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Stages to Saturn
| publisher = NASA
| series =
| volume = SP-4206
| edition =
| date =
| location =
| page = 60
| language =
| chapter = Chapter 3. Missions, Modes, and Manufacturing
| chapterurl = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch3.htm
| url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/sp4206.htm
| doi =
| id =
| isbn =
| mr =
| zbl =
| jfm = }}
</ref>
 
===Little Joe II===
{{Main|Little Joe II}}
 
Since Apollo, like Mercury, would require a [[launch escape system]] (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively small rocket was required for qualification testing of this system. However, a size bigger than the NAA [[Little Joe (rocket)|Little Joe]] would be required, so the [[Little Joe II]] was built by [[General Dynamics]]/[[Convair]]. After an August, 1963 [[QTV|qualification test flight]],<ref>{{Citation
|last = Townsend
|first = Neil A.
|author-link =
|title = NASA TN D-7083: Launch Escape Propulsion Subsystem
|page = 14
|date = March 1973
|url = http://klabs.org/history/apollo_experience_reports/tn-d7083_apollo_launch_escape_propulsion.pdf
|accessdate = September 12, 2012 }}</ref> four LES test flights ([[A-001]] through [[A-004|004]]) were made at the [[White Sands Missile Range]] between May 1964 and January 1966.<ref>Townsend, TN D-7083, p. 22</ref>
 
===Saturn I===
<!--[[File:SA-1 launch.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[SA-1]], launched October 27, 1961.]] too big for some reason-->
{{Main|Saturn I}}
 
Saturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSM's in low Earth orbit tests. The [[S-I]] first stage burned [[RP-1]] with [[liquid oxygen]] (LOX) oxidizer, to produce {{convert|1500000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}} of thrust. The [[S-IV]] second stage used six [[liquid hydrogen]]-fueled [[RL-10]] engines with {{convert|90000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}} of thrust. A planned [[Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] (S-V) third stage with two RL-10 engines, never flew on Saturn I.<ref>{{Citation
|last = Dawson
|first = Virginia P.
|author-link =
|last2 = Bowles
|first2 = Mark D.
|title = Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket 1958-2002
|publisher = NASA
|page = 85 |date = February 1, 1964
|url = http://www.history.nasa.gov/SP-4230.pdf
|accessdate = September 12, 2012 }} See footnote 61.</ref>
 
The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only live first stages, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The first flight with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches of [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] CSMs into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the Apollo program by also carrying [[Pegasus (satellite)|Pegasus]] satellites, which verified the safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity of [[micrometeorite]] impacts.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Brooks | first1 = Courtney G.
| author-link =
| last2 = Grimwood | first2 = James M.
| last3 = Swenson | first3 = Loyd S.
| author2-link =
| title = Chariots For Apollo
| place =
| publisher = NASA
| series = SP-4205
| volume =
| origyear =
| year = 1979
| month=
| edition =
| chapter = Chapter 7 Searching for Order: Portents for Operations
| chapterurl = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch7-6.html
| page =
| pages =
| language =
| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html
| doi =
| id =
| isbn =
| mr =
| zbl =
| jfm = }}</ref>
 
[[File:Apollo 7 launch2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|A [[Saturn IB]] rocket launches [[Apollo 7]], 1968.]]
In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four manned CSM flights on the Saturn I from the fall of 1965 through 1966, concurrent with [[Project Gemini]]. However, the {{convert|22500|lb|kg|adj=on}} payload capacity<ref>{{Citation
|last =
|first =
|author-link =
|title = NASA TM X-811: Apollo Systems Description
|volume = Volume II: Saturn Launch Vehicles
|page = 3-3
|date = February 1, 1964
|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710065502_1971065502.pdf
|accessdate = September 12, 2012 }}</ref> would have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in October 1963 to use the uprated Saturn IB for all manned Earth orbital flights.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Wade
|first = Mark
|authorlink =
|title = Apollo SA-11
|work = Encyclopedia Astronautica
|publisher =
|date =
|url = http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apoosa11.htm
|doi =
|accessdate = June 21, 2012}}</ref>
 
===Saturn IB===
{{Main|Saturn IB}}
 
The [[Saturn IB]] was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The [[S-IB]] first stage increased the thrust to {{convert|1600000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}}, and the second stage replaced the S-IV with the [[S-IVB|S-IVB-200]], powered by a single [[J-2 (rocket engine)|J-2]] engine burning [[liquid hydrogen]] fuel with LOX, to produce {{convert|200000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on|lk=on}} of thrust. A restartable version of the S-IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over {{convert|40000|lb|kg|sigfig=3}} into low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM.<ref>Saturn IB News Reference: Saturn IB Design Features</ref> Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-200 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "2" indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family.
 
===Saturn V===
[[File:Ksc-69pc-442.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|A [[Saturn V]] [[Saturn (rocket family)|rocket]] launches Apollo 11 in 1969]]
{{Main|Saturn V}}
 
The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was {{convert|33|ft|m|sigfig=3}} in diameter and stood {{convert|363|ft|m|sigfig=4}} tall with its {{convert|96800|lb|kg|sigfig=3|adj=on}} lunar payload. Its capability grew to {{convert|103600|lb|kg|sigfig=3}} for the later advanced lunar landings. The [[S-IC]] first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of {{convert|7500000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}}, which was upgraded to {{convert|7610000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3}}. The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen, and the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to {{convert|230000|lbf|kN|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} and capability to restart the engine for [[Trans lunar injection|translunar injection]] after reaching a parking orbit.<ref name="ABTN_LV1">{{cite book
|last = Orloff
|first = Richard W.
|title = Apollo By the Numbers: A Statistical Reference
|publisher = NASA
|series = SP
|volume = 4029
|year = 2004
|location =
|pages =
|url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-11_Launch_Vehicle-Spacecraft_Key_Facts.htm
|isbn =}}</ref>
 
Saturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500 series number, "AS" indicating "Apollo Saturn" and the "5" indicating Saturn V. Since Apollo, like [[Project Mercury]], used more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA similarly used the spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series numbers AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (c/w [[Mercury-Redstone 3]], [[Mercury-Atlas 6]]), to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them sequentially as in [[Project Gemini]]. However, this would be changed by the time manned flights began.<ref name="missionNumbers" />
{{clear}}
 
==Astronauts==
{{Main|List of Apollo astronauts}}
[[File:Apollo 1 Prime Crew - GPN-2000-001159.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Apollo 1 crew: Edward H. White, command pilot Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee]]
 
NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations during the Apollo program was [[Deke Slayton|Donald K. "Deke" Slayton]], one of the original [[Mercury Seven]] astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible for making all [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] and Apollo crew assignments.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www11.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/slayton.html |title = Biographical Data: Mr. Deke Slayton|publisher = [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]|year= 1993|month= June|accessdate=2008-01-28}}</ref>
 
[[File:apollo 11.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Apollo 11 crew, who made the first manned landing: commander [[Neil Armstrong]], CM pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], and LM pilot [[Buzz Aldrin]]]]
 
Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earth’s orbit and flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 walked on its surface, though none of them returned to the Moon after landing once. One of the Moon-walkers was a trained geologist. Of the 32, [[Gus Grissom]], [[Edward Higgins White|Edward H. White]], and [[Roger B. Chaffee|Roger Chaffee]] were killed during a ground test in preparation for their [[Apollo 1]] mission.<ref>[http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions]. NASA, 1999.</ref>
 
The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development flights), through the first two landings on [[Apollo 11]] and [[Apollo 12]], included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Dr. [[Harrison Schmitt]], a geologist, was the first [[NASA Astronaut Group 4|NASA scientist astronaut]] to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last mission, [[Apollo 17]]. Schmitt participated in the [[geology of the moon|lunar geology]] training of all of the Apollo landing crews.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/schmitt-hh.html |title = Biographical Data: Harrison H. Schmitt (PhD)|publisher = [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]|year= 1994|month= December|accessdate=2012-09-12}}</ref>
 
{{See also|List of Apollo astronauts#Astronauts who flew on Apollo, listed by group|label 1=Astronauts who flew on Apollo, listed by group}}
 
==Lunar mission profile==
The nominal planned lunar landing mission proceeded as follows:
<gallery widths="190" heights="131">
File:apollo11-01.png|'''Launch''' The 3 Saturn V stages burn for about 11 minutes to achieve a {{convert|100|nmi|km|adj=on}} circular parking orbit. The third stage burns a small portion of its fuel to achieve orbit.
File:apollo11-02.png|'''[[Translunar injection]]''' After one to two orbits to verify readiness of spacecraft systems, the S-IVB third stage reignites for about 6 minutes to send the spacecraft to the Moon.
File:apollo11-03.png|'''[[Transposition, docking, and extraction|Transposition and docking]] (1)''' The SLA panels separate to free the CSM and expose the LM. The CMP moves the CSM out a safe distance, and turns 180°.
File:apollo11-04.png|'''Transposition and docking (2)''', The CMP docks with the LM, and pulls the combined spacecraft away from the S-IVB, which then is sent into solar orbit. The lunar voyage takes between 2 and 3 days. Midcourse corrections are made as necessary using the SM engine.
File:apollo11-05.png|'''[[Lunar orbit]] insertion''' The spacecraft passes about {{convert|60|nmi|km}} behind the Moon, and the SM engine is fired to slow the spacecraft and put it into a {{convert|60|by|170|nmi|km|adj=on}} orbit, which is soon circularized at 60 nautical miles by a second burn.
File:apollo11-07.png|After a rest period, the CDR and LMP move to the LM, power up its systems, and deploy the landing gear. The CSM and LM separate; the CMP visually inspects the LM, then the LM crew move a safe distance away and fire the descent engine for '''Descent orbit insertion''', which takes it to a [[perilune]] of about {{convert|50000|ft|km}}.
File:apollo11-08.png|'''Powered descent''' At perilune, the descent engine fires again to start the descent. The CDR takes over manual control after pitchover for a vertical landing.
File:apollo11-09.png|The CDR and LMP perform one or more [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]s exploring the lunar surface and collecting samples, alternating with rest periods.
File:apollo11-10.png|The ascent stage lifts off, using the descent stage as a launching pad.
File:apollo11-11.png|The LM rendezvouses and docks with the CSM.
File:apollo11-12.png|The CDR and LMP transfer back to the CM with their material samples, then the LM ascent stage is jettisoned, to eventually fall out of orbit and crash on the surface.
File:apollo11-13.png|'''[[Trans-Earth injection]]''' The SM engine fires to send the CSM back to Earth.
File:apollo11-14.png|The SM is jettisoned just before reentry, and the CM turns 180° to face its blunt end forward for reentry.
File:apollo11-15.png|Atmospheric drag slows the CM, surrounding it with an envelope of ionized air which causes a communications blackout for several minutes.
File:apollo11-16.png|Parachutes are deployed, slowing the CM for a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean. The astronauts are recovered and brought to an aircraft carrier.
</gallery>
 
<gallery widths="520" heights="325">
File:Apollo-Moon-mission-profile.png|Lunar flight profile.
</gallery>
 
===Profile variations===
*After [[Apollo 12]] placed the second of several [[seismometer]]s on the Moon, the S-IVBs on subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit, as an active seismic experiment to induce vibrations in the Moon.
*The first three lunar missions ([[Apollo 8]], [[Apollo 10]], and [[Apollo 11]]) used a [[free return trajectory]], keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the free-return option.
*On later landing flights, the SM engine was used instead of the LM engine to begin powered descent, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing.
*On Apollo 12 and later missions, the jettisoned LM ascent stages were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations, as another active seismic experiment. The only exceptions to this were the [[Apollo 13]] LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and [[Apollo 16]], where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.<ref>{{cite web|title=Apollo - Current Locations|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apolloloc.html|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration|accessdate=2 December 2011}}</ref>
 
==Development history==
 
===Unmanned flight tests===
<imagemap>
File:Apollo unmanned launches.png|thumb|right|250px|Apollo unmanned development mission launches. Click on a launch image to read the main article about each mission.|alt=Composite image of unmanned development Apollo mission launches in chronological sequence.
rect 0 0 91 494 [[AS-201|AS-201 first unmanned CSM test]]
rect 92 0 181 494 [[AS-203|AS-203 S-IVB stage development test]]
rect 182 0 270 494 [[AS-202|AS-202 second unmanned CSM test]]
rect 271 0 340 494 [[Apollo 4|Apollo 4 first unmanned Saturn V test]]
rect 341 0 434 494 [[Apollo 5|Apollo 5 unmanned LM test]]
rect 435 0 494 494 [[Apollo 6|Apollo 6 second unmanned Saturn V test]]
 
</imagemap>
{{See also|List of Apollo missions}}
Two Block I CSMs were launched from pad 34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the [[Saturn IB]]. The first, [[AS-201]] launched on February 26, reached an altitude of {{convert|265.7|nmi|km}} and splashed down {{convert|4577|nmi|km}} downrange in the Atlantic ocean.<ref>{{Citation
|title = Postlaunch report for mission AS-201 (Apollo spacecraft 009)
|place =
|publisher = NASA
|series =
|volume =
|origyear =
|year = 1966
|month= May
|edition =
|chapter =
|chapterurl =
|page =
|pages =
|language =
|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750065090_1975065090.pdf
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
|doi =
|id =
|isbn =
|mr =
|zbl =
|jfm = }}</ref> The second, [[AS-202]] on August 25, reached {{convert|617.1|nmi|km}} altitude and was recovered {{convert|13900|nmi|km}} downrange in the Pacific ocean. These flights validated the Service Module engine and the Command Module heat shield.<ref>{{Citation
|title = Postlaunch report for mission AS-202 (Apollo spacecraft 011)
|place =
|publisher = NASA
|series =
|volume =
|origyear =
|year = 1966
|month= October
|edition =
|chapter =
|chapterurl =
|page =
|pages =
|language =
|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740075039_1974075039.pdf
|archiveurl =
|archivedate =
|doi =
|id =
|isbn =
|mr =
|zbl =
|jfm = }}</ref>
 
A third Saturn IB test, [[AS-203]] launched from pad 37, went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nosecone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the unburned [[liquid hydrogen]] fuel, the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.<ref name=NASAreport>{{Citation
|title = Evaluation of AS-203 Low Gravity Orbital Experiment
|date = 13 January 1967
|pages =
|publisher = NASA
|url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19680012073_1968012073.pdf
|doi =
|id = }}</ref>
 
===Preparation for manned flight===
Two manned orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer. The astronauts would wear [[Gemini space suit#Apollo program|a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit]].
 
After an unmanned LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB.) The Block II crew positions were titled Commander (CDR), Command Module Pilot (CMP), and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP). The astronauts would begin wearing a new [[Apollo/Skylab A7L|Apollo spacesuit]], designed to accommodate lunar [[extravehicular activity]]. The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear "fishbowl" type for greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment.
 
Grissom, White and Chaffee were named for the AS-204 crew on March 21, 1966, with a backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans [[James McDivitt]] and [[David Scott]], with rookie [[Rusty Schweickart|Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart]]. Mercury/Gemini veteran [[Wally Schirra]] and rookies [[Donn F. Eisele|Donn Eisele]] and [[Walter Cunningham]] were named as the prime crew for AS-205.
 
In December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.<ref>{{cite book
|last1 = Brooks | first1 = Courtney G.
|last2 = Grimwood | first2 = James M.
|last3 = Swenson | first3 = Loyd S.
|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html
|title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft
|year=1979
|accessdate=January 29, 2008
|publisher=NASA
|chapter=Chapter 8 Part 7 Preparations for the First Manned Apollo Mission
|chapterurl = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch8-7.html
|isbn=0-486-46756-2| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080209003722/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html| archivedate= February 9, 2008 | deadurl= no}}
</ref>
 
====Program delays====
The spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to KSC with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first manned mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission. Eventually the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.<ref name="SP4029">{{cite web |work=NASA Special Publication-4029 |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_01a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 1: The Fire 27&nbsp;January 1967}}</ref>
 
North American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn V S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first unmanned Saturn V flight AS-501 from late 1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.)<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch19-3.html|title=Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations|author=Benson, Charles D.|coauthors=William Barnaby Faherty|year=1978|publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Office, National Aeronautics and Space Administration|series=NASA history series|page=19.3}}</ref>
 
The problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a "[[tiger team]]" to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president [[Lee Atwood]], with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator [[Robert Seamans]].<ref>NASA never volunteered the tiger team findings to the US Congress in the course of its regular oversight, but its existence was publicly disclosed as "the Phillips report" in the course of the Senate investigation into the Apollo 204 fire. {{cite web |last= Garber |first= Steve |title= NASA Apollo Mission Apollo-1 – Phillips Report |publisher= NASA History Office |date= February 3, 2003 |url= http://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/phillip1.html |accessdate=April 14, 2010 |archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100415050958/http://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/phillip1.html| archivedate= April 15, 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>
 
Meanwhile, [[Grumman]] was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for manned flight in 1967, not long after the first manned CSM flights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch7-4.html |title=Chariots for Apollo, Ch 7-4 |publisher=Hq.nasa.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-21}}</ref>
 
====Disaster strikes====
{{Main|Apollo 1}}
 
Grissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the first manned flight. They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on pad 34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.<ref name="sea4">{{cite book |first=Robert C., Jr. |last=Seamans |publisher=NASA History Office |title=Report of Apollo 204 Review Board |chapter=Description of Test Sequence and Objectives
|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/desc.html |date=April 5, 1967 |accessdate=October 7, 2007}}</ref>
 
[[File:Apollo 1 fire.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Charred remains of the Apollo 1 cabin interior]]
 
The plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was plagued with problems. First the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits, which delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin, and spread quickly in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin burst and the fire erupted onto the pad area, frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated, before the hatch could be opened.<ref name="sea5">{{cite book |first=Robert C., Jr. |last=Seamans |publisher=NASA History Office |title=Report of Apollo 204 Review Board |chapter=Findings, Determinations And Recommendations |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html |date=April 5, 1967 |accessdate=October 7, 2007}}</ref>
 
NASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that "deficiencies existed in Command Module design, workmanship and quality control."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html |title=Report of the Apollo 204 Review Board, Findings and Recommendations |publisher=Hq.nasa.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-21}}</ref> At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed [[Harrison Storms]] as Command Module program manager.<ref>Gray, Mike. "Angle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon", Penguin Books (Non-Classics) (June 1, 1994). ISBN 0-14-023280-X.</ref> Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager [[Joseph Francis Shea]], replacing him with [[George Low]].<ref>Ertel and Newkirk, ''Apollo Spacecraft'', Vol IV, p. 119.</ref>
 
To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials. The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I [[plug door|plug-type]] hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door. NASA discontinued the manned Block I program, using the Block I spacecraft only for unmanned Saturn V flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear the Block II space suits and be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether or not a LM was present on the flight.
 
====Unmanned Saturn V and LM tests====
On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, manned or unmanned. The sequence would start with [[Apollo 4]] to cover the first three unmanned flights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation to honor the crew per their widows' wishes.<ref name="missionNumbers">{{Cite web
|coauthors =
|title = Apollo 11 30th Anniversary: Manned Apollo Missions
|publisher = [[NASA]] History Office
|year = 1999
|url = http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm
|accessdate =March 3, 2011 |archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110220232013/http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm| archivedate= February 20, 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>
 
In September 1967, Mueller approved a [[List of Apollo mission types|sequence of mission types]] which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the manned lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The '''A''' missions were unmanned Saturn V validation; '''B''' was unmanned LM validation using the Saturn IB; '''C''' was manned CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; '''D''' was the first manned CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); '''E''' would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; '''F''' would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a "dress rehearsal"); and '''G''' would be the first manned landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include '''H''' lunar landings, '''I''' for lunar orbital survey missions, and '''J''' for extended-stay lunar landings.<ref name='3Q1967'>{{cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20IV|title=The Apollo Spacecraft&nbsp;— A Chronology. Volume IV|publisher = NASA |year = 1975 |accessdate = 2008-01-29 |chapter = Part 2(D) - July through September 1967|chapterurl= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2d.htm}}</ref>
 
The delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on man-rating the LM and Saturn V. [[Apollo 4]] (AS-501) was the first unmanned flight of the Saturn V, carrying a Block I CSM on November 9, 1967. The capability of the Command Module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the Service Module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed. This was followed on April 4, 1968 by [[Apollo 6]] (AS-502), which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the Service Module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. However, the Saturn V experienced [[pogo oscillation]], a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. However, the damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the Service Module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly men, cancelling a third unmanned test.<ref>{{cite book
|last1 = Brooks | first1 = Courtney G.
|last2 = Grimwood | first2 = James M.
|last3 = Swenson | first3 = Loyd S.
|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html
|title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft
|year=1979
|accessdate=November 29, 2012
|publisher=NASA
|chapter=Chapter 10 Part 5 Apollo 6: Saturn V's Shaky Dress Rehearsal
|chapterurl = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch10-5.html
|isbn=0-486-46756-2| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080209003722/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html| archivedate= February 9, 2008 | deadurl= no}}
</ref>
 
[[Apollo 5]] (AS-204) was the first unmanned test flight of LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second unmanned test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be manned.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Low
| first = George M.
| author-link = George Low
| last2 =
| first2 =
| author2-link =
| title = Apollo Expeditions to the Moon
| place =
| publisher = NASA
| series =
| volume =
| origyear =
| year = 1975
| month=
| edition =
| chapter = Chapter 4.6: The Spaceships - Testing and Retesting To Get Ready For flight
| chapterurl = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-350/ch-4-6.html
| page =
| pages =
| language =
| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html
| archiveurl =
| archivedate =
| isbn =
| jfm = }}</ref>
 
===Manned development missions===
<imagemap>
File:Apollo manned development missions insignia.png|thumb|right|250px|Apollo manned development mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission.|alt=Composite image of 6 manned Apollo development mission patches, from Apollo 1 to Apollo 11.
rect 0 0 595 600 [[Apollo 1|Apollo 1 unsuccessful first manned CSM test]]
rect 596 0 1376 600 [[Apollo 7|Apollo 7 first manned CSM test]]
rect 1377 0 2076 600 [[Apollo 8|Apollo 8 first manned flight to the Moon]]
rect 0 601 595 1200 [[Apollo 9|Apollo 9 manned Earth orbital LM test]]
rect 596 601 1376 1200 [[Apollo 10|Apollo 10 manned lunar orbital LM test]]
rect 1377 601 2076 1200 [[Apollo 11|Apollo 11 first manned Moon landing]]
</imagemap>
 
[[Apollo 7]], launched from pad 34 on October 11, 1968, was the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM systems.
 
Apollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IB's. However, in the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager [[George Low]] suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to the Moon instead, deferring the D mission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program on track. The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans [[Frank Borman]] and [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and rookie [[William Anders]] captured the world's attention by making 10 lunar orbits in 20 hours and transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth.
 
{{Details|Apollo 8}}
 
The following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on [[Apollo 9]], and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its [[Portable Life Support System]] outside the LM.
 
The F mission was successfully carried out on [[Apollo 10]] in May 1969 by Gemini veterans [[Thomas Patten Stafford|Thomas Stafford]], [[John Young (astronaut)|John Young]] and [[Eugene Cernan]]. Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within {{convert|50000|ft|km|sigfig=2}} of the lunar surface.
 
The G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of [[Neil Armstrong]], [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]]. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the [[Mare Tranquillitatis|Sea of Tranquility]] at 20:17:40 [[UTC]] on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 36 minutes outside the spacecraft, walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24.
 
{{Bquote|That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.| ||[[Neil Armstrong]], just after stepping onto the Moon's surface<ref name="Snopes">{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp|title=One Small Misstep: Neil Armstrong's First Words on the Moon|last=Mikkelson|first=Barbara|coauthors=David Mikkelson|date=October 2006 |work=Snopes.com |publisher=[[Snopes.Com|Urban Legends Reference Pages]] |page=1|accessdate=September 19, 2009}}</ref>}}
 
{{Details3|[[Apollo 11]] and [[Neil Armstrong#First Moon walk]]}}
 
===Lunar landings===
<imagemap>
File:Apollo lunar landing missions insignia.png|thumb|right|250px|Apollo production manned lunar landing mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission.|alt=Composite image of 6 production manned Apollo lunar landing mission patches, from Apollo 12 to Apollo 17.
rect 0 0 602 600 [[Apollo 12|Apollo 12 second manned Moon landing]]
rect 603 0 1205 600 [[Apollo 13|Apollo 13 unsuccessful Moon landing attempt]]
rect 1206 0 1885 600 [[Apollo 14|Apollo 14 third manned Moon landing]]
rect 0 601 602 1200 [[Apollo 15|Apollo 15 fourth manned Moon landing]]
rect 603 601 1205 1200 [[Apollo 16|Apollo 16 fifth manned Moon landing]]
rect 1206 601 1885 1200 [[Apollo 17|Apollo 17 sixth manned Moon landing]]
</imagemap>
 
[[File:Apollo landing sites.jpg|thumb|left|Apollo landings on the Moon, 1969–1972]]
In November 1969, Gemini veteran [[Pete Conrad|Charles "Pete" Conrad]] and rookie [[Alan Bean|Alan L. Bean]] made a precision landing on [[Apollo 12]] within walking distance of the [[Surveyor 3]] unmanned lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the [[Ocean of Storms]]. The Command Module Pilot was Gemini veteran [[Richard F. Gordon, Jr.]] Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes. On one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which they returned to Earth.<ref>http://history.nasa.gov/SP-350/ch-12-3.html</ref>
 
The contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs were enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions would also carry the [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]] (LRV), increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was [[Apollo/Skylab A7L#A7LB Spacesuit (Apollo, Skylab and ASTP)|revised for the extended missions]] to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.
 
The success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as Commander, with two rookies. [[Apollo 13]] launched Lovell, [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]] in April 1970, headed for the [[Fra Mauro formation]]. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the Service Module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "life boat" to return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications.<ref name="KSC-Apollo_13" /> Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added.
 
====Mission cutbacks====
{{Main|Canceled Apollo missions}}
 
About the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the ''[[Skylab]]'' orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming [[Space Shuttle]]. By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19. The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]] on [[Merritt Island]], Florida, [[Marshall Space Flight Center|George C. Marshall Space Center]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]], Alabama, [[Michoud Assembly Facility]] in [[New Orleans]], Louisiana, and [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]] in [[Houston]], Texas.
 
The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the last four missions. Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there were only two missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions.
 
Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to [[Apollo 14]], commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran [[Alan Shepard]], with [[Stuart Roosa]] and [[Edgar Mitchell]]. This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 1 day, 9½ hours on the surface, with two EVAs totalling 9 hours 22½ minutes.
 
====Extended missions====
[[File:Apollo 15 Lunar Rover and Irwin.jpg|thumb|left|Lunar Roving Vehicle used on Apollos 15–17]]
 
[[Apollo 15]] was launched in July 1971, with David Scott, [[Alfred Worden]] and [[James Irwin]]. Scott and Irwin landed near [[Mons Hadley|Hadley Rille]], and spent just under 2 days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about {{convert|77|kg|lb}} of lunar material.
 
[[File:Apollo17 plaque.jpg|thumb|right|Plaque left on the Moon by [[Apollo 17]]]]
 
[[Apollo 16]] landed in the [[Descartes Highlands]] in April 1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with [[Ken Mattingly]] and [[Charles Duke]]. Young and Duke spent just under 3 days on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA.
 
[[Apollo 17]] closed out the Apollo program, landing in the [[Taurus-Littrow]] region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan commanded [[Ronald Evans|Ronald E. Evans]] and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist Dr. [[Harrison Schmitt|Harrison H. Schmitt]]. Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18, but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing. Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just under 3 days, 3 hours and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA.
 
==Mission summary==
{{main|List of Apollo missions}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Designation !! Date !! Crew !! Description
|-
| AS-201 ||width=120px| Feb. 26, 1966||width=120px| None|| First flight of Saturn IB and Block I CSM; suborbital to Atlantic ocean; qualified heat shield to orbital reentry speed
|-
| AS-203 || July 5, 1966|| None|| No spacecraft; observations of liquid hydrogen fuel behavior in orbit, to support design of S-IVB restart capability
|-
| AS-202 || Aug. 25, 1966|| None|| Suborbital flight of CSM to Pacific ocean.
|-
| Apollo 4 || Nov. 9, 1967|| None|| First flight of Saturn V; Earth orbital CSM flight; demonstrated S-IVB restart; qualified CM heat shield to lunar reentry speed
|-
| Apollo 5 || Jan. 22-23, 1968|| None|| First Earth orbital flight of LM, launched on Saturn IB; demonstrated ascent and descent propulsion; man-rated the LM
|-
| Apollo 6 || April 4, 1968|| None|| Attempted demonstration of trans-lunar injection and direct-return abort with SM engine; three engine failures prevented S-IVB restart. Flight controllers used SM engine to repeat Apollo 4's flight profile. Man-rated the Saturn V.
|-
| Apollo 7 || Oct. 11-22, 1968|| Wally Schirra<br>Walt Cunningham<br>Donn Eisele|| Earth orbital demonstration of Block II CSM, launched on Saturn IB. First live television publicly broadcast from a manned mission
|-
| Apollo 8 || Dec. 21-27, 1968|| Frank Borman<br>James Lovell<br>William Anders|| First manned flight to Moon; CSM made 10 lunar orbits in 20 hours.
|-
| Apollo 9 || Mar, 3-13, 1969|| James McDivitt<br>David Scott<br>Russell Schweickart|| Earth orbital demonstration of CSM, LM, and Portable Life Support System used on the lunar surface
|-
| Apollo 10 || May 18–26, 1969|| Thomas Stafford<br>John Young<br>Eugene Cernan|| Dress rehearsal for first lunar landing; flew LM down to {{convert|50000|ft|km}} from lunar surface
|-
| Apollo 11 || July 16–24, 1969|| Neil Armstrong<br>Michael Collins<br>Buzz Aldrin|| First manned landing, in Sea of Tranquility. Surface EVA time: 2:31 hr. Samples returned: {{convert|47.5|lb|kg}}
|-
| Apollo 12 || Nov. 14-24, 1969|| C. Peter Conrad<br>Richard Gordon<br>Alan Bean|| Second landing, in Ocean of Storms near Surveyor 3 . Surface EVA time: 7:45 hr. Samples returned: {{convert|75.7|lb|kg}}
|-
| Apollo 13 || April 11–17, 1970|| James Lovell<br>Jack Swigert<br>Fred Haise|| Third landing attempt aborted near the Moon, due to SM failure. Crew used LM as "life boat" to return to Earth.
|-
| Apollo 14|| Jan 31-Feb. 9, 1971|| Alan Shephard<br>Stuart Roosa<br>Edgar Mitchell|| Third landing, in Fra Mauro. Surface EVA time: 9:22 hr. Samples returned: {{convert|93.2|lb|kg}}.
|-
| Apollo 15 || July 26-Aug. 7, 1971|| David Scott<br> Alfred Worden<br> James Irwin|| First Extended LM and rover, landed in Hadley-Apennine. Surface EVA time:18:34 hr. Samples returned: {{convert|170.4|lb|kg}}.
|-
| Apollo 16 || April 16–27, 1972|| John Young<br>T. Kenneth Mattingly<br>Charles Duke|| Landed in Plain of Descartes. Surface EVA time: 20:14 hr. Samples returned: {{convert|211.0|lb|kg}}.
|-
| Apollo 17 || Dec. 7-17, 1972|| Eugene Cernan<br>Ronald Evans<br>Harrison Schmitt|| Landed in Taurus-Littrow. First geologist on the Moon. Surface EVA time: 22:04 hr. Samples returned: {{convert|243.6|lb|kg}}.
|}
Source for surface times and sample amounts: [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-30_Extravehicular_Activity.htm NASA: ''Apollo by the Numbers'', ''Extravehicular Activity'']
 
==Samples returned==
{{Main|Moon rock}}
{{double image
|1=right
|2=Apollo 15 Genesis Rock.jpg
|3=150
|4=Lunar Ferroan Anorthosite 60025.jpg
|5=132
|6=The most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the [[Genesis Rock]], returned from [[Apollo 15|Apollo&nbsp;15]].
|7=Ferroan [[Anorthosite]] Moon rock, returned from [[Apollo 16|Apollo&nbsp;16]].}}
 
The Apollo program returned {{convert|841.4|lb|kg}} of lunar rocks and soil to the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] in Houston. Today, most of the samples are stored at the [[Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility]] built in 1979.
 
The rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by [[radiometric dating]] techniques. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years for the [[basalt]]ic samples derived from the [[lunar mare]], to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the [[Lunar highlands|highlands]] crust.<ref>{{cite journal |last= James Papike, Grahm Ryder, and Charles Shearer |title= Lunar Samples |journal= Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume= 36|pages= 5.1–5.234 |year= 1998}}</ref> As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the [[Solar System]], that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the [[Genesis Rock]], retrieved by astronauts [[David Scott]] and [[James Irwin]] during the Apollo 15 mission. This [[anorthosite]] rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral [[anorthite]], and is believed to be representative of the highland crust. A geochemical component called [[KREEP]] was discovered that has no known terrestrial counterpart. KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see [[lunar magma ocean]]).
 
Almost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted with [[micrometeoroid]] impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of ''impact melt'' (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly [[breccia]]ted as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.
 
Analysis of composition of the lunar samples supports the [[giant impact hypothesis]], that the Moon was created through impact of a large astronomical body with the Earth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burrows |first=William E. |title=This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age |year=1999 |publisher=Modern Library|page=431 |isbn=0-375-75485-7 |oclc=42136309}}</ref>
 
==Program cost==
When President Kennedy first chartered the Moon landing program, a preliminary cost estimate of $7 billion was generated, but this proved an extremely unrealistic guess of what could not possibly be determined precisely, and James Webb used his administrator's judgment to change the estimate to $20 billion before giving it to Vice President Johnson.<ref name=Butts>{{cite web |last= Butts |first= Glenn |last2= Linton |first2= Kent |title= The Joint Confidence Level Paradox: A History of Denial, 2009 NASA Cost Symposium |date= April 28, 2009 |pages= 25–26 |url= http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/nexgen/Nexgen_Downloads/Butts_NASA's_Joint_Cost-Schedule_Paradox_-_A_History_of_Denial.pdf |postscript= <!--None--> }}</ref>
 
Webb's estimate shocked many at the time (including the President), but ultimately proved to be reasonably accurate. In January 1969, NASA prepared an itemized estimate of the run-out cost of the Apollo program. The total came to $23.9 billion, itemized as follows:<ref>{{cite book |last= Wilford |first= John Noble |authorlink= John Noble Wilford |title= We Reach the Moon |publisher= Bantam Books |edition= |date= July 1969 |location= New York |page= 67 |isbn= }}</ref>
 
*Apollo spacecraft: $7,945.0 million
*Saturn I launch vehicles: $767.1 million
*Saturn IB launch vehicles: $1,131.2 million
*Saturn V launch vehicles: $6,871.1 million
*Launch vehicle engine development: $854.2 million
*Mission support: $1,432.3 million
*Tracking and data acquisition: $664.1 million
*Ground facilities: $1,830.3 million
*Operation of installations: $2,420.6 million.
 
The final cost of project Apollo was reported to Congress as $25.4 billion in 1973.<ref>House, Subcommittee on Manned Space Flight of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 1974 NASA Authorization, Hearings on H.R. 4567, 93/2, Part 2, p. 1271.</ref> It took up the majority of NASA's budget while it was being developed. For example, in 1966 it accounted for about 60 percent of NASA's total $5.2 billion budget.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hoagland, J. H.; Skolnikoff, E. B. |title=The World Wide Spread of Space Technology |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2060/19690013030 |work=NASA Technical Reports Server |publisher=NASA |accessdate=October 6, 2011}}</ref> A single Saturn V launch in 1969 cost up to $375 million, compared to the [[National Science Foundation]]'s fiscal year 1970 budget of $440 million.<ref name="heppenheimer1998">{{cite book |title=The Space Shuttle Decision |publisher=NASA |author=Heppenheimer, T. A. |year=1998 |page=73 |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/ch2.htm}}</ref>
 
In 2009, NASA held a symposium on project costs which presented an estimate of the Apollo program costs in 2005 dollars as roughly $170 billion. This included all [[research and development]] costs; the procurement of 15 Saturn V rockets, 16 Command/Service Modules, 12 Lunar Modules, plus program support and management costs; construction expenses for facilities and their upgrading, and costs for flight operations. This was based on a [[Congressional Budget Office]] report, ''A Budgetary Analysis of NASA’s New Vision for Space'', September 2004.<ref name=Butts/> ''The Space Review'' estimated in 2010 the cost of Apollo from 1959 to 1973 as $20.4 billion, or $109 billion in 2010 dollars, averaged over the six landings as $18 billion each.<ref name="lafleur20100308">{{cite news |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1579/1 |title=Costs of US piloted programs |work=The Space Review |date=March 8, 2010 |accessdate=February 18, 2012 |author=Lafleur, Claude}}</ref>
 
==Apollo Applications Program==
{{Main|Apollo Applications Program}}
 
Looking beyond the manned lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (''Apollo X'',) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space in the [[Apollo (spacecraft)#Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter|Spacecraft-LM Adapter]] to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty [[S-IVB]] Saturn upper stage, and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by Apollo Telescope Missions, which would replace the LM's descent stage equipment and engine with a solar telescope observatory. The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a [[Manned Venus Flyby|Venus fly-by mission]].
 
The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed [[Skylab]], it was constructed complete on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an [[Apollo Telescope Mount]], the solar telescope that would have been used on the Apollo Telescope Missions. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979, by which time it had become the oldest operational Apollo-Saturn component.
 
==Recent observations==
[[File:Lroc apollo11 landing site 20091109 zoom.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|“There the [Apollo 11] lunar module sits, parked just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since merely imaginary.” –''The New York Times''<ref name="nyt_lro_lm_img">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/opinion/17tue4.html |title=The Human Moon |date=November 16, 2009 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=November 19, 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091119041921/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/opinion/17tue4.html| archivedate= November 19, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>]]
 
In 2008, [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]]'s [[SELENE]] probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 lunar module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2008/05/20080520_kaguya_e.html |title=The "halo" area around Apollo 15 landing site observed by Terrain Camera on SELENE(KAGUYA)|date=May 20, 2008 |accessdate=November 19, 2009 |publisher=[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091212114843/http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2008/05/20080520_kaguya_e.html| archivedate= December 12, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2009, NASA's [[robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]], while orbiting {{convert|50|km|mi|sigfig=2}} above the Moon, photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and photographed each site where manned Apollo flights landed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html |title=LRO Sees Apollo Landing Sites |date=July 17, 2009 |accessdate=November 19, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]]| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091116012309/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html| archivedate= November 16, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/index.html |title=Apollo Landing Sites Revisited |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=November 19, 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091113094613/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/revisited/index.html| archivedate= November 13, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> All of the U. S. flags left on the moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that mission's lift-off from the lunar surface and return to the mission command module in lunar orbit; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anderson|first=Ron, Principal Investigator|title="Question Answered!" - blog entry for July 27, 2012|url=http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/news/index.php?/archives/620-Question-Answered!.html|work=NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera web-site|publisher=Arizona State University - School of Earth & Space Exploration|accessdate=2012-10-28}}</ref>
 
In a November 16, 2009 editorial, ''The New York Times'' opined:
{{quote|[T]here's something terribly wistful about these photographs of the Apollo landing sites. The detail is such that if Neil Armstrong were walking there now, we could make him out, make out his footsteps even, like the astronaut footpath clearly visible in the photos of the Apollo 14 site. Perhaps the wistfulness is caused by the sense of simple grandeur in those Apollo missions. Perhaps, too, it’s a reminder of the risk we all felt after the Eagle had landed – the possibility that it might be unable to lift off again and the astronauts would be stranded on the Moon. But it may also be that a photograph like this one is as close as we’re able to come to looking directly back into the human past.<ref name="nyt_lro_lm_img"/>}}
 
In September 2007, the [[X Prize Foundation]] and [[Google]] announced the [[Google Lunar X Prize]], to be awarded for a robotic lunar landing mission which transmits close-up images of the [[Apollo Lunar Module]]s and [[List of artificial objects on the Moon|other artificial objects on the surface]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/about-the-prize/rules-and-guidelines |title=Rules & Guidelines |publisher=[[X PRIZE Foundation]] |date=November 20, 2008 |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>
 
==Legacy==
 
===Science and engineering===
{{Further2|[[NASA spin-off|NASA spinoff technologies]]}}
 
The Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history.<ref>[http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/introduction.htm 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11], NASA, 1999.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/07/99/the_Moon_landing/396037.stm 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11]. BBC, July 23, 1999.</ref> Apollo stimulated many areas of technology. The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|flight computer]] design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the [[LGM-30 Minuteman|Minuteman Missile System]], the driving force behind early research into [[integrated circuit]]s. The first practical [[fuel cell]] was developed for this program. [[Numerical control|Computer-controlled machining]] was first used in the fabrication of Apollo structural components.
 
===Cultural impact===
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|left|170px|"Everything that I ever knew – my life, my loved ones, the Navy – everything, the whole world was behind my thumb." –[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] |alt=The Earth over the lunar horizon, photographed by the Apollo 8 crew]]
 
The crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read from the creation story in the Biblical book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve, 1968, This was believed to be the most widely watched television broadcast until that time. The mission and Christmas provided an inspiring end to 1968, which had been a bad year for the U.S., marked by [[Vietnam War]] protests, race riots, and the assassinations of civil rights leader [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], and Senator [[Robert Kennedy]].
 
An estimated one-fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the first [[Apollo 11|Apollo]] Moon walk.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burrows |first=William E. |title=This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age |year=1999 |publisher=Modern Library|page=429 |isbn=0-375-75485-7 |oclc=42136309}}</ref>
 
[[File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|right|160px|"We went to explore the Moon, and in fact discovered the Earth." –[[Eugene Cernan]] ]]
An effect of the Apollo program is the view of Earth as a fragile, small planet, captured in photographs taken by the astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous, taken by the [[Apollo 17]] astronauts, is [[The Blue Marble]] (right).
 
Many astronauts and [[astronaut#Russia|cosmonauts]] have commented on the profound effects that seeing Earth from space has had on them;<ref>The Overview Effect: Space Exploration and Human Evolution</ref>{{Citation broken|date=December 2012}} the [[List of Apollo astronauts|24 astronauts who traveled to the Moon]] are the only humans to have observed Earth from beyond [[low Earth orbit]], and have traveled farther from Earth than anyone else to date.
 
According to ''[[The Economist]]'', Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on the Soviet Union in the [[Space Race]], and beat it by accomplishing a singular and significant achievement, and thereby showcased the superiority of the capitalistic, free-market system as represented by the US. The publication noted, however, the irony that in order to achieve the goal, the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast, centralized government bureaucracy.<ref>''[[The Economist]]'', "[http://www.economist.com/node/18712369 Lexington: Apollo plus 50]", May 21, 2011, p. 36.</ref>
 
==Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project==
As part of Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA spearheaded an effort to digitally restore the existing videotapes of the mission's live televised moonwalk.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/ |title=NASA - Apollo 40th Anniversary |publisher=Nasa.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-21}}</ref> After an exhaustive three-year search for missing tapes of the original video of the Apollo 11 moonwalk, NASA concluded the data tapes had more than likely been accidentally erased.<ref name=NPR_tapes>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106637066 "Houston, We Erased The Apollo 11 Tapes"]. National Public Radio, July 16, 2009.</ref>
 
{{quote|We're all saddened that they're not there. We all wish we had 20-20 hindsight. I don't think anyone in the NASA organization did anything wrong, I think it slipped through the cracks, and nobody's happy about it.|Dick Nafzger, TV Specialist, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center<ref name=NPR_tapes/>}}
 
The Moon landing data was recorded by a special [[Apollo TV camera]] which recorded in a format incompatible with broadcast TV. This resulted in lunar footage that had to be converted for the live television broadcast and stored on magnetic telemetry tapes. During the following years, a magnetic tape shortage prompted NASA to remove massive numbers of magnetic tapes from the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] to be recorded over with newer satellite data. Stan Lebar, who designed and built the lunar camera at [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation]], also worked with Nafzger to try to locate the missing tapes.<ref name=NPR_tapes/>
 
{{quote|So I don't believe that the tapes exist today at all. It was a hard thing to accept. But there was just an overwhelming amount of evidence that led us to believe that they just don't exist anymore. And you have to accept reality.|Stan Lebar, Lunar Camera Designer, Westinghouse Electric Corporation<ref name=NPR_tapes/>}}
 
With a budget of $230,000, the surviving original lunar broadcast data from Apollo 11 was compiled by Nafzger and assigned to [[Lowry Digital]] for restoration. The video was processed to remove random noise and camera shake without destroying historical legitimacy.<ref name="Moon footage restore">Borenstein, Seth for AP. [http://web.archive.org/web/20090719134430/news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090716/ap_on_sc/us_sci_Moon_video "NASA lost Moon footage, but Hollywood restores it"]. Yahoo news, July 16, 2009.</ref> The images were from tapes in Australia, the CBS News archive, and [[kinescope]] recordings made at Johnson Space Center. The restored video, remaining in black and white, contains conservative digital enhancements and did not include sound quality improvements.<ref name="Moon footage restore"/>
 
==Depictions on film==
 
===Documentaries===
 
Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the [[Space Race]], including:
* ''[[Moonwalk One]]'' (1970)
* ''[[For All Mankind]]'' (1989)
* ''Moon'' from the BBC miniseries ''[[The Planets (TV series)|The Planets]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D]]'' (2005)
* ''[[In the Shadow of the Moon (film)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]'' (2007)
* ''[[When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions]]'' (miniseries) (2008)
* ''[[James May on the Moon]]'' (documentary commemorating 40 years since the landings) (2009)
* ''[[NASA's Story]]'' (2009)
* ''[http://moonscapemovie.blogspot.ch/p/watch-latest-release-of-moonscape.html Moonscape]'' (freely downloadable Apollo 11 documentary) (2012)
 
===Docudramas===
The Apollo program, or certain missions, have been [[docudrama|dramatized]] in ''[[Apollo 13 (film)]]'' (1995), ''[[Apollo 11 (film)]]'' (1996), ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (TV miniseries)]]'' (1998), ''[[Space Race (TV series)|Space Race]]'' (2005), and ''[[Moon Shot (film)]]'' (2009).
 
==See also==
{{Portal|Spaceflight|Moon}}
* [[commons:Apollo 11 flight|Apollo 11 flight to the Moon]]
* [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package]]
* [[Apollo TV camera]]
* [[List of man-made objects on the Moon]]
* [[List of megaprojects]]
* [[Lockheed Propulsion Company]]
* [[Moon landing]]
* [[Moon landing conspiracy theories]]
* [[Pad Abort Test-1 (Apollo)]]
* [[Soviet manned lunar programs]]
* [[Splashdown (spacecraft landing)]]
* [[Stolen and missing moon rocks]]
 
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* "Discussion of Soviet Man-in-Space Shot," Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 87th Congress, First Session, April 13, 1961.
* {{cite book
|last= Hansen
|first= James R.
|title= Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept
|publisher =NASA
|format=PDF
|year =1999
|url =http://history.nasa.gov/monograph4.pdf
|accessdate =May 3, 2012 }}
* {{Cite book
|last =Launius
|first =Roger
|coauthors =Howard McCurdy
|title =Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership
|publisher =University of Illinois Press
|year =1997
|location =Urbana}}
* {{cite book |first= Charles |last= Murray |coauthors =Catherine Bly Cox |title= Apollo: The Race to the Moon |location= New York |publisher= Simon and Schuster |year= 1989 |isbn= 0-671-61101-1 |oclc= 19589707}}
* {{cite journal |last =Papike |first= James |coauthors= Graham Ryder and Charles Shearer |title= Lunar Samples |journal= Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry |volume= 36 |pages= 5.1–5.234 |year= 1998 }}
* {{Cite book
|last =Sidey
|first =Hugh
|title =John F. Kennedy, President
|publisher =Atheneum
|year =1963
|location= New York }}
* {{cite book
|last= Swenson, Jr.
|first= Loyd S.
|coauthors= Courtney G Brooks and James M. Grimwood
|title= Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft
|publisher= NASA
|year= 1979
|url= http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html}}
{{Refend}}
 
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* [[Andrew Chaikin|Chaikin, Andrew]]. ''A Man on the Moon''. ISBN 0-14-027201-1. Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program.
* [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Collins, Michael]]. ''Carrying the Fire; an Astronaut's journeys''. Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11
* Cooper, Henry S. F. Jr. ''Thirteen: The Flight That Failed''. ISBN 0-8018-5097-5. Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures.
* [[Francis French|French, Francis]] and [[Colin Burgess (author)|Burgess, Colin]], ''[[In the Shadow of the Moon (book)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965–1969.'' ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. History of the Apollo program from Apollo 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.
* [[Gene Kranz|Kranz, Gene]], ''Failure is Not an Option''. Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]], and Apollo space programs. ISBN 0-7432-0079-9.
* [[Jim Lovell|Lovell, Jim]]; Kluger, Jeffrey. ''Lost Moon: The perilous voyage of Apollo 13'' aka ''Apollo 13: Lost Moon''. ISBN 0-618-05665-3. Details the flight of Apollo 13.
* [[Richard W. Orloff|Orloff, Richard W.]] [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm SP-4029 ''Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference'']
* Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua. ''Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0-380-80261-9. Tells [[Grumman Aerospace Corporation|Grumman's]] story of building the Lunar Modules.
* [[David Scott|Scott, David]], and [[Alexei Leonov]]. ''Two Sides of the Moon: The Story of the Cold War Space Race''. New York: St. Martin's, 2006. (ISBN 0312308663)
* Robert C. Seamans, Jr. ''Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions''. ISBN 0-16-074954-9. History of the manned space program from September 1, 1960 to January 5, 1968.
* [[Deke Slayton|Slayton, Donald K.]]; Cassutt, Michael. ''Deke! An Autobiography''. ISBN 0-312-85918-X. Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.
* {{PDFlink|[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690022643_1969022643.pdf The Apollo Spacecraft. Volume 1 – A chronology:]|13.2&nbsp;MB}} From origin to November 7, 1962
* {{PDFlink|[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740004394_1974004394.pdf The Apollo Spacecraft: Volume 2 – A chronology:]|13.4&nbsp;MB}} November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964
* {{PDFlink|[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760014180_1976014180.pdf The Apollo Spacecraft: Volume 3 – A chronology:]|57.7&nbsp;MB}} October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966
* {{PDFlink|[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf The Apollo Spacecraft: Volume 4 – A chronology:]|24.2&nbsp;MB}} January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974
* {{PDFlink|[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750013242_1975013242.pdf Apollo program summary report: Synopsis of the Apollo program – NASA report]|26.5&nbsp;MB}}
* Wilhelms, Don E. ''[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/rockyMoon/ To a Rocky Moon]''. ISBN 0-8165-1065-2. The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.
* [[Paul-Henri Campbell]] ''Space Race'' (2012) books of poems on the Apollo program and the entire space race. ISBN 978-3942829212.
{{Refend}}
 
==External links==
{{Commons category|Apollo missions}}
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html Official Apollo program web page]
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/index.html Apollo photo gallery at NASA Human Spaceflight page] (includes videos/animations)
* [http://tapes.millercenter.virginia.edu/clips/1962_1121_apollo/ Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb ''et al.'' discussing the Apollo agenda] (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962)
* [http://www.spaceflighthistory.com/apolloprogram.htm U.S. Spaceflight History- Apollo Program]
* [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/ Apollo Image Atlas] almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute
* [http://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html Project Apollo at NASA History Division]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal]
* [http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/apollo.htm NASA Spinoff: Apollo Spinoffs]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/afj/ The Apollo Flight Journal]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.html Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report (Technical)]
* [http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/Apollo/Apollo.htm The Apollo Program (National Air and Space Museum)]
* [http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/apollo11/index1.html Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature] (in [[Adobe Flash|Flash]])
* [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/apollo_landings.html Exploring the Moon: Apollo Missions]
* [http://www.apolloarchive.com/ Apollo Archive] – large repository of information about the Apollo program.
* [http://apollo.sese.asu.edu/ Apollo Flight Film Archive] – repository of scanned Apollo flight film (in high resolution).
* [http://history.nasa.gov/series95.html NASA History Series Publications] (many of which are on-line)
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava03129vnb1|name="Time of Apollo (1975)"}}
 
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